Germanic boar helmets or boar crested helmets are attested in archaeological finds from England, Denmark and Sweden, dating to Vendel and Anglo-Saxon periods, and Old English and Old Norse written sources. They consist of helmets decorated with either a boar crest or other boar imagery that was believed to offer protection in battle to the wearer. They have also been proposed to be a costume for the ritual transformation into a boar, similar to berserkers, and to be associated with Freyr.
The boar was an important symbol in prehistoric Europe, where, according to the archaeologist Jennifer Foster, it was "venerated, eulogised, hunted and eaten ... for millennia, until its virtual extinction in recent historical time." [1] Anglo-Saxon and Vendel era boar symbols are preceded by a thousand years of similar iconography, coming after La Tène examples in the fourth century BCE, Gaulish specimens three centuries later, and Roman boars in the fourth century CE. [2] The boar is said to have been sacred to a mother goddess figure among linguistically Celtic communities in Iron Age Europe, [3] while the Roman historian Tacitus, writing around the first century CE, suggested that the Baltic Aesti wore boar symbols in battle to invoke her protection. [4] [5] Four legions, including the twentieth that was stationed in Britain, [6] [2] also adopted the boar as their emblem. The sole unequivocal depictions of boar-crested helmets outside of Germanic sources are on interior plate E of the Gundestrup cauldron, dating to the La Tène period or early Roman Iron Age, which is commonly believed to be Celtic in origin but also has elements suggesting Thracian origin. [7]
Boars had a prominent role for the Germanic peoples and were closely associated with battle. The boar's snout formation was a wedge formation first attested in the 4th century CE, used by the Germanic peoples and named due to its appearance. The formation was also used in the medieval period, as attested in sources such as Knýtlinga saga and Ólafs saga Tryggvasonar. In Gesta Danorum, Book VII, the formation is taught by Odin to Harald Wartooth, who was named due to the tusks he grew to replace two of his teeth that fell out while he was young. [8]
In mythological sources, the boar Saehrimnir is killed each day to feed the einherjar, while Gullinbursti and Hildisvíni are owned by the gods Freyr and Freyja respectively. [9] Both Freyr and Freyja share names with swine, with boars referred to as Vaningi, a name for Freyr, and Freyja as Sýr (sow). [10] In a ritual context, swine are often sacrificed and eaten during blóts (in particular the sonarblót), and are central in some forms of heitstrenging, where the boar is described as being holy. Scholars have proposed the sonarblót was devoted to Freyr, while in the U and H manuscripts of Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks, the link between the god and Heitstrenging is explicit. [11] [12] Guldgubbar finds include figures of swine and their ritual deposition has been linked with Vanir worship. [13]
Boar symbolism and religious practice is closely associated with Sweden, a cultic centre for Freyr, and where it has been suggested to have been a totemic animal. Both the Swedish Yngling royal family and families of Icelandic settlers that can be traced back to Sweden are described as specifically worshiping Freyr and owning boars. [14] A number of Germanic names feature as an element in names related to jǫfurr (derived from Proto-Germanic *eburaR, wild boar) such as Jǫfurfǫst and Jǫfurbjǫrn, attested in Swedish runic inscriptions, and Eofor, a Geat in Beowulf. [15] In later sources, jǫfurr the meaning of 'boar' and has been predominantly replaced by 'ruler' or 'prince'. [16] This transition has been proposed due to the association between boar helmets and nobility. [17]
Despite the numerous associations between boars and the Vanir, Freyr and Freyja, it is to be noted that the boar also has symbolism in its own right and is not always linked with the gods. [18] [19] [20]
Both boar-crested helmets and crest fragments dating to the Anglo-Saxon period have been discovered in England such as the Benty Grange helmet found in Derbyshire, dating to the 7th century CE. Boars also feature on the eyebrow terminals of the Sutton Hoo Helmet which shares features both with other Anglo-Saxon and Vendel era helmets, and has been suggested to have been made in Sweden. [21] It has been proposed that a post-Roman introduction of a Germanic tradition from the European mainland, rather than the continuation of a tradition in Britain through 400 years of Roman rule, resulted in the return to prominence in the Anglo-Saxon period. [19] [22]
The Benty Grange boar has been suggested to have originally been fitted with boar bristles which would form an accentuated dorsal crest, a motif that has been suggested to point towards the animal's aggression and ferocity, consistent with martial associations. [23] [24] It has also been proposed that the golden decoration of the boar represents Freyr's boar Gullinbursti who has golden bristles, however there is no direct evidence that this story was known in England at the time of construction. [25] [26]
Unlike those found in England, no Scandinavian helmets have yet been discovered with boar crests, however plates depicting them have been found in Sweden, dating to the Vendel era. The Vendel I helmet, dated to approximately 650 CE has plates showing a rider accompanied by a bird of prey with a boar-crested helmet. Similarly, the Valsgärde 7 helmet has a plate depicting two warriors carrying spears and wearing boar-crested helmets, a motif that bears a strong resemblance to one of the 6th century Torslunda plates. [3] [27] It has been suggested that the helmets depicted on these plates are of an older style than the helmets that the plates are decorating. [28]
Boar helmets are referenced in the Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf five times. [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] In three cases they appear to feature freestanding boars atop the helmets, [22] [34] [35] [36] like the Guilden Morden example. Such is the case when Grendel's mother seeks vengeance for the death of her son. [37]
Com þa to Heorote, ðær Hring-Dene | She came to Heorot. There, inside the hall, |
| —Old English text [38] | —Heaney Translation [39] |
In another case, Hrōðgār laments the death of his advisor by Grendel's mother:
Ne frín þú æfter saélum, sorh is geníwod | Ask not for news of happy hours! Sorrow is come anew upon the |
| —Old English text [40] | —Tolkien Translation [41] |
In two instances, boars are referred to in the plural, such as when Beowulf and his men leave their ship as "[b]oar-shapes flashed above their cheek-guards" (Old English : eoforlic scionon ofer hleorbergan) [42] [43] These references may refer instead boars like those on the eyebrows of the Sutton Hoo helmet, as opposed to crests. [35] [36] [44] [45]
In the poem Elene, the word eoforcumbol appears twice and has been translated as "boar-crest on a helmet" or "boar-banner". In this context, it is presented both as a symbol of protection, and as a heathen symbol that is contrasted with the Christian cross. [46]
In Old Norse sources, helmets may be associated with boars, in particular those of the Yngling royal house. The Swedish king Aðils owned the helmets Hildisvín ('Battle-swine') [48] and Hildigǫltr ('Battle-boar'), [49] the former of which was inherited from another Yngling, his parental uncle Áli. [50] Hildigǫltr is also listed as a heiti for a helmet in Nafnaþulur, and is attested in the skaldic poetry of Háttatal: [51] [52]
Holt felr hildigelti | The outstanding one covers the hill of the dwelling of the brain (his cranium) with a battle boar (helmet) |
| —Old Norse text [53] | —Faulkes translation [54] |
The heiti valgǫltr is also used in Hrafnsmál as part of a battle kenning: [52]
Feldi folks valdi | First the Folk-wielder |
| —Old Norse text [55] | —Morris translation [56] |
It has been further proposed that the helmet heiti valhrímnir and hallhrímnir refer to swine through the component -hrimnir, a heiti for swine attested in Nafnaþulur also found as a suffix in the name Sæhrímnir. [51] [57]
Boar imagery on Anglo-Saxon helmets is associated explicitly with protection in Beowulf where the poet describes the figures on helmets kept watch over the warriors wearing them. [58] It has been proposed that the figures have an apotropaic role and that cutting them off will result in the death of the warrior. In the latter case, the boar and warrior appear to be regarded as a singular entity with a shared life. [59]
It has also been proposed that, similar to úlfheðnar and berserkers, putting on a boar-helmet may be akin to shape-changing, allowing the wearer to take on qualities of the animal, in addition to its appearance. Consistent with this is a helmet plate from Vendel grave XIV in Uppland that depicts two warriors with bird-crest helmets, one of which also has boar tusks, suggesting it is the armour that makes them a representation of the animal. People in medieval Germanic literature can be referred to as boars such as Ragnar Loðbrók in his eponymous saga. In the case of Kjalnesinga saga, a warrior is specifically described as having boar-like teeth when fighting. While úlfheðnar and berserkers are frequently in service to kings, they are commonly portrayed negatively, instead of as noble heroes, and lacking control over their actions. On the other hand, identification or comparison with a wild boar is positive and closely associated with the warrior elite. The distinction has been suggested to result from bears and wolves being predatory, while boars, though fierce and often fighting to the death when cornered, forage rather than hunt. [60] [61]
Freyr, sometimes anglicized as Frey, is a widely attested god in Norse mythology, associated with kingship, fertility, peace, prosperity, fair weather, and good harvest. Freyr, sometimes referred to as Yngvi-Freyr, was especially associated with Sweden and seen as an ancestor of the Swedish royal house. According to Adam of Bremen, Freyr was associated with peace and pleasure, and was represented with a phallic statue in the Temple at Uppsala. According to Snorri Sturluson, Freyr was "the most renowned of the æsir", and was venerated for good harvest and peace.
In the Old Norse written corpus, berserkers were those who were said to have fought in a trance-like fury, a characteristic which later gave rise to the modern English word berserk. Berserkers are attested to in numerous Old Norse sources.
Heorot is a mead-hall and major point of focus in the Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf. The hall serves as a seat of rule for King Hrothgar, a legendary Danish king. After the monster Grendel slaughters the inhabitants of the hall, the Geatish hero Beowulf defends the royal hall before subsequently defeating him. Later Grendel's mother attacks the inhabitants of the hall, and she too is subsequently defeated by Beowulf.
The Ingaevones were a Germanic cultural group living in the Northern Germania along the North Sea coast in the areas of Jutland, Holstein, and Lower Saxony in classical antiquity. Tribes in this area included the Angles, Chauci, Saxons, and Jutes.
Eadgils, Adils, Aðils, Adillus, Aðísl at Uppsölum, Athisl, Athislus or Adhel was a semi-legendary king of Sweden, who is estimated to have lived during the 6th century.
In Swedish prehistory, the Vendel Period appears between the Migration Period and the Viking Age. The name is taken from the rich boat inhumation cemetery at Vendel parish church, Uppland. Unlike the preceding and succeeding eras, the Vendel Period left very few precious metal artifacts or runic inscriptions. Instead, it is extremely rich in animal art on copper-alloy objects. It is also known for guldgubbar, tiny embossed gold foil images, and elaborate helmets with embossed decoration similar to the one found at Sutton Hoo in England.
The Battle on the Ice of Lake Vänern was a 6th-century battle recorded in the Norse sagas and referred to in the Old English epic Beowulf. It has been dated to c. AD 530.
The Benty Grange helmet is an Anglo-Saxon boar-crested helmet from the seventh century AD. It was excavated by Thomas Bateman in 1848 from a tumulus at the Benty Grange farm in Monyash in western Derbyshire. The grave had probably been looted by the time of Bateman's excavation, but still contained other high-status objects suggestive of a richly furnished burial, such as the fragmentary remains of a hanging bowl. The helmet is displayed at Sheffield's Weston Park Museum, which purchased it from Bateman's estate in 1893.
Heitstrenging (pl. heitstrengingar) is an Old Norse term referring to the swearing of a solemn oath to perform a future action. They were often performed at Yule and other large social events, where they played a role in establishing and maintaining good relationships principally between members of the aristocratic warrior elite. The oath-swearing practice varied significantly, sometimes involving ritualised drinking or placing hands on a holy pig that could later be sacrificed. While originally containing heathen religious components such as prayers and worship of gods such as Freyr and Thor, the practice continued in an altered manner after the Christianisation of Scandinavia.
In Germanic paganism, a vé or wēoh is a type of shrine, sacred enclosure or other place with religious significance. The term appears in skaldic poetry and in place names in Scandinavia, often in connection with an Old Norse deity or a geographic feature.
The Sutton Hoo helmet is a decorated Anglo-Saxon helmet found during a 1939 excavation of the Sutton Hoo ship-burial. It was buried around the years c. 620–625 CE and is widely associated with an Anglo-Saxon leader, King Rædwald of East Anglia; its elaborate decoration may have given it a secondary function akin to a crown. The helmet was both a functional piece of armour and a decorative piece of metalwork. An iconic object from an archaeological find hailed as the "British Tutankhamen", it has become a symbol of the Early Middle Ages, "of Archaeology in general", and of England.
The Pioneer Helmet is an Anglo-Saxon boar-crested helmet from the late seventh century found in Wollaston, Northamptonshire, United Kingdom. It was discovered during a March 1997 excavation before the land was to be mined for gravel and was part of the grave of a young man. Other objects in the grave, such as a hanging bowl and a pattern welded sword, suggest that it was the burial mound of a high-status warrior.
The sonargǫltr or sónargǫltr was the boar sacrificed as part of the celebration of Yule in Germanic paganism, on whose bristles solemn vows were made in some forms of a tradition known as heitstrenging.
Many different weapons were created and used in Anglo-Saxon England between the fifth and eleventh centuries. Spears, used for piercing and throwing, were the most common weapon. Other commonplace weapons included the sword, axe, and knife—however, bows and arrows, as well as slings, were not frequently used by the Anglo-Saxons. For defensive purposes, the shield was the most common item used by warriors, although sometimes mail and helmets were used.
In Norse mythology, the sister-wife of Njörðr is the unnamed wife and sister of the god Njörðr, with whom he is described as having had the twin children Freyr and Freyja. This shadowy goddess is attested to in the Poetic Edda poem Lokasenna, recorded in the 13th century by an unknown source, and the Heimskringla book Ynglinga saga, a euhemerized account of the Norse gods composed by Snorri Sturluson also in the 13th century but based on earlier traditional material. The figure receives no further mention in Old Norse texts.
The Central European boar is a subspecies of wild boar, currently distributed across almost all of mainland Europe, with the exception of some northern areas in both Scandinavia and European Russia and the southernmost parts of Greece. It is a medium-sized, dark to rusty-brown haired subspecies with long and relatively narrow lacrimal bones. In Northern Italy, artificially introduced S. s. scrofa have extensively interbred with the smaller sized indigenous S. s. majori populations since the 1950s.
The Guilden Morden boar is a sixth- or seventh-century Anglo-Saxon copper alloy figure of a boar that may have once served as the crest of a helmet. It was found around 1864 or 1865 in a grave in Guilden Morden, a village in the eastern English county of Cambridgeshire. There the boar attended a skeleton with other objects, including a small earthenware bead with an incised pattern, although the boar is all that now remains. Herbert George Fordham, whose father originally discovered the boar, donated it to the British Museum in 1904; as of 2018 it was on view in room 41.
The Torslunda plates are four cast bronze dies found in the Torslunda parish on the Swedish island Öland. They display figures in relief, representing what are presumed to be traditional scenes from Germanic mythology. The plates are moulds designed for production rather than display; by placing thin sheets of foil against the scenes and hammering or otherwise applying pressure from the back, identical images could be quickly mass-produced. The resulting pressblech foils would be used to decorate rich helmets of the sort found at Vendel, Valsgärde, and Sutton Hoo. Two of the plates may have been made as casts of existing pressblech foils.
The Horncastle boar's head is an early seventh-century Anglo-Saxon ornament depicting a boar that probably was once part of the crest of a helmet. It was discovered in 2002 by a metal detectorist searching in the town of Horncastle, Lincolnshire. It was reported as found treasure and acquired for £15,000 by the Lincoln City and County Museum, where it is on permanent display.
A prominent position is held by rings in early Germanic cultures, appearing both in archaeology throughout areas settled by Germanic peoples, and in textual sources discussing their practices and beliefs. They are notably associated with the related aspects of wealth, being used as forms of currency in the Early Medieval Period, and swearing sacred oaths, often dedicated to, or witnessed by, the gods. The sacrality of rings is reflected in Germanic mythology and ring bestowal held a central role in maintaining functional relationships between rulers and their retinues. The cultural roles of rings continued to varying extents during and after the Christianisation of the Germanic peoples, such as in gift-bestowal and oath-swearing.
