Jacky winter

Last updated

Jacky winter
Jacky Winter - Glen Davis.jpg
Scientific classification Red Pencil Icon.png
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Family: Petroicidae
Genus: Microeca
Species:
M. fascinans
Binomial name
Microeca fascinans
(Latham, 1801)

The jacky winter (Microeca fascinans) is a small grey-brown robin found commonly throughout Australia and also in Papua New Guinea. The jacky winter acquired its name due to rapid and strong vocalisations, which sound like jacky-jacky winter-winter. [2] Their call is also often referred to as sounding like peter-peter-peter. [3] Its habitats include open woodlands and farmlands.

Contents

Taxonomy and distribution

The jacky winter belongs to the family of Australasian robins and flycatchers Petroicidae . This family includes around 49 species in around 19 genera that are all endemic to Australasia. [4] [5] The family Petroicidae evolved in a similar way to the Australo-Papuan warblers ( Acanthizidae )—the latter evolved in isolation from similar families to them, namely Parulidae and Sylviidae , which occupied comparable niches in other continental regions, such as Central /South America and Eurasia, respectively. [6] Petroicidae evolved in the Australo-Papuan area to fill an ecological niche, which was already being used by New World flycatchers ( Tyrannidae ) in North America and South America, and by Old World flycatchers ( Muscicapidae ) in Europe, Africa, and Asia. This is an example of convergent evolution. [7] [8]

The generic name Microeca derives from the Greek micros meaning 'small' and oikos meaning 'house'. This refers to the fact that they build the smallest nest of any Australian bird. [9] The specific name fascinans is Latin for 'fascinating' and derives from fascinare meaning 'to bewitch'. [9]

Other vernacular names for the jacky winter are brown flycatcher, peter peter, postboy, spinks and stumpbird. [3] [10]

There are three races of jacky winter found in Australia. Microeca fascinans fascinans (leucophaea) is the most familiar race, and is found in central and eastern Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, and southeastern South Australia. There are also Microeca fascinans assimilis, which is found in South Australia and south Western Australia, and Microeca fascinans pallida, which is found in northern and western Queensland, Northern Territory, and the Kimberley in Western Australia. [2] [7] [11] [12] Microeca fascinans zimmeri is a subspecies of jacky winter found in Papua New Guinea [13]

Description

The jacky winter is around 12 – 14 cm in length (including the tail) and its weight varies from 14 – 18 g. [14] The plumage of M. f. fascinans includes a greyish breast with white on the bottom half, its head and back is greyish-brown, while its wings are a darker brown with white edges. The bill is black, it has a narrow eye-line and a buff alula stripe. The tail of M. f. fascinans is blackish brown with white outer feathers. Its legs are black. Subspecies M. f. assimilis is very similar to M. f. fascinans; however, it is darker, with more grey over the breast and flanks, covering up the white which is seen on M. f. fascinans. [14] M. f. pallida is smaller than the other two subspecies, being only around 13 cm. M. f. pallida is much more pallid than the other subspecies, and is usually a sandy brown colour. [12]

Behaviour

Rush Creek, south-east Queensland

The jacky winter can be heard vocalising before sunrise and usually stops towards the middle of the day. Occasionally closer to sunset, it can be heard again. [15] During the day they can be seen perched atop trees and posts, preening their feathers or even sunning to kill the parasites, which may be present in amongst the feathers. [16]

Diet

The jacky winter is an insectivore and a sit-and-search predator, which moves amongst perches to locate food. This is a continuous activity that can cover long distances in order to find prey items. [17] The jacky winter has two methods of hunting, which include hawking and ground-pouncing. Hawking is when a bird flies and drops to the ground, grabbing their prey during flight, while ground-pouncing is when they fly from a perch, grabbing prey as they land. [18] Both of these hunting styles are used quite commonly by the jacky winter. [17] [18] [19]

Reproduction

Female nesting Jacky winter nesting.jpg
Female nesting

In many species of birds, the male plumage is quite bright and flamboyant to attract the opposite sex in hope of finding a partner to mate with. The jacky winter is instead a sexually monomorphic bird, which means that both the male and female are almost identical in appearance. [14] Rather than plumage playing a significant role in attracting the opposite sex, the jacky winter male uses song to attract a female during courtship. [15] In the eastern states of Australia, the jacky winter breeds mostly to the west of the Great Dividing Range, where a suitable habitat of eucalyptus woodland is present. They build a small, open cup-shaped nest, which is often made from grass and bark strips held together by spider webs. The nest is built in an exposed position, usually on a fork of a branch. [14]

The breeding season of jacky winters occurs from September to November. Leading up to September, singing from the males is at its highest peak, then as the nestlings are born around late September, the singing becomes quite minimal. [15] In late October, the singing increases again, lasting until early November, when the females lay a second brood of the season. By late November with the hatching of the young, the males stop singing, making vocalisations almost non-existent from then on. It stays like this until the birds have left the area. [15] The nesting period lasts for 15 to 20 days, while the incubation is between 16 and 18 days. Only the female will incubate the eggs, while the male will help feed the young once they have hatched. 92 per cent of the time, the female will lay only two eggs per clutch. [14] It is uncommon for this number to vary, since many different environmental factors determine the number of eggs per clutch in order to maximize the survival rate of fledglings from the nest. [20]

Territory size of the jacky winter has been recorded at 1.7 ha, which is similar to other species of Petroicidae , such as the flame robin and scarlet robin. The jacky winter seems to favour habitats for breeding that contain a eucalyptus box woodland or open box woodland, which have patches of box trees and isolated live trees. Fallen logs and stumps are also favoured in habitat selection. [14] The jacky winter holds these territories by perching on top of these eucalyptus trees and keeping a regular sustained call. The breeding density of jacky winters is about 17.2 ha for one pair. [14] The jacky winter is known to defend their territory all year around. [12]

Status

The jacky winter is a common species of bird found throughout Australia, and is described as a bird of least concern by the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). Like many other small woodland birds in Australia, the jacky winter populations are declining and are considered to be a common species but decreasing. [21]

All subspecies of the jacky winter in Australia are declining. M. f. fascinans is declining throughout eastern Australia, including New South Wales, Queensland and Victoria; [14] [21] [22] M. f. assimilis is declining throughout Western Australia and parts of South Australia; [12] [19] M. f. pallida is declining throughout parts of Queensland, the Northern Territory, as well as the Kimberley in Western Australia. [12]

Threats

A number of species of woodland birds, such as the jacky winter, are declining and going locally extinct, due to the fragmentation and degradation of their habitats. These deleterious changes are not only happening in Australia, but around the world. [22] [23] [24] Since European settlement in Australia, much of the woodlands have been converted to arable land and pasture, for crops to grow and for livestock to graze. [22] Grazing livestock has impacted the jacky winter by decreasing the amount of small, ground and shrub vegetation, creating a lot of bare ground. This bare ground disadvantages the ground-pouncing jacky winter because a decrease in the larger terrestrial arthropods that they feed upon occurs. [17]

The increase of bare ground, created by woodland fragmentation and degradation, can also cause nesting resources of the jacky winter to become scarce due to the increase of weeds in the area. This results in the jacky winter having to try to find another suitable habitat. [25] [26] [22] Finding suitable habitats has become quite difficult for the jacky winter as other birds thrive in these landscapes. The noisy miner (Manorina melanocephala) is a winner of these human-altered landscapes, and is quite aggressive towards other small insectivores, such as the jacky winter. The jacky winter suffers quite negatively from the presence of the noisy miner, as it cannot outcompete it for food resources. The noisy miner has quite a negative impact on tree health, which also limits the availability of suitable nesting material for the jacky winter. [27]

Climate change also threatens to cause the jacky winter to decline even further. A changing climate caused by anthropogenic sources has already been determined to affect the breeding activity, the timing of migration, and also the geographical and elevation range of birds quite significantly. These effects are seen all over the world on a number of different species. [28] [29] [30] [31] What threatens the jacky winter in Australia is rising temperature and evapotranspiration, causing more droughts and increasing fire severity and frequency. [30] [32] It is expected that these will impact the availability of food, as well as safe nesting sites and refuges from predators. [33] The rising temperature has already caused birds around the world to decrease in body size. This has been interpreted as a micro-evolutionary response to global climate warming, and to the changes in nutrition associated with declining food availability and habitat quality, which the jacky winter is undergoing in southeastern Australia. [34]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Common redstart</span> Species of bird

The Common Redstart, or often simply Redstart, is a small passerine bird in the genus Phoenicurus. Like its relatives, it was formerly classed as a member of the thrush family, (Turdidae), but is now known to be an Old World flycatcher.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Australasian robin</span> Family of birds

The bird family Petroicidae includes 51 species in 19 genera. All are endemic to Australasia: New Guinea, Australia, New Zealand and numerous Pacific Islands as far east as Samoa. For want of an accurate common name, the family is often called the Australasian robins. Within the family species are known variously as robins, scrub-robins and flyrobins. They are only distantly related to the European robin of Europe, north Africa and western Asia, a member of family Muscicapidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Olive-sided flycatcher</span> Species of bird

The olive-sided flycatcher is a small to medium sized passerine bird in the family Tyrannidae, the Tyrant flycatcher family. It is a migratory species that travels from South to North America to breed during the summer. It is a very agile flyer and mainly consumes flying insects on flight. Since 2016, this species has been assessed as being near-threatened globally (IUCN) and threatened in Canada (SRA) due to its declining populations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flame robin</span> Small passerine bird native to southeastern Australia

The flame robin is a small passerine bird native to Australia. It is a moderately common resident of the coolest parts of south-eastern Australia, including Tasmania. Like the other two red-breasted Petroica robins—the scarlet robin and the red-capped robin—it is often simply called the robin redbreast. Like many brightly coloured robins of the Petroicidae, it is sexually dimorphic. Measuring 12–14 cm (4.7–5.5 in) long, the flame robin has dark brown eyes and a small thin black bill. The male has a brilliant orange-red chest and throat, and a white patch on the forehead above the bill. Its upper parts are iron-grey with white bars, and its tail black with white tips. Female coloration is a muted grey-brown. Its song has been described as the most musical of its genus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rufous fantail</span> Species of bird

The rufous fantail is a small passerine bird, most commonly known also as the black-breasted rufous-fantail or rufous-fronted fantail, which can be found in Australia, Indonesia, Micronesia, New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. In these countries they inhabit rainforests, wet forests, swamp woodlands and mangroves.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White-eared honeyeater</span> Species of bird

The white-eared honeyeater is a medium-sized honeyeater found in Australia. It is a member of the family Meliphagidae which has 190 recognised species with about half of them found in Australia. This makes them members of the most diverse family of birds in Australia. White-eared honeyeaters are easily identifiable by their olive-green body, black head and white ear-patch.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red-capped robin</span> A small passerine bird native to Australia

The red-capped robin is a small passerine bird native to Australia. Found in drier regions across much of the continent, it inhabits scrub and open woodland. Like many brightly coloured robins of the family Petroicidae, it is sexually dimorphic. Measuring 10.5–12.5 cm (4.1–4.9 in) in length, the robin has a small, thin, black bill, and dark brown eyes and legs. The male has a distinctive red cap and red breast, black upperparts, and a black tail with white tips. The underparts and shoulders are white. The female is an undistinguished grey-brown. This species uses a variety of songs, and males generally sing to advertise territories and attract females. Birds are encountered in pairs or small groups, but the social behaviour has been little studied.

<i>Eopsaltria</i> Genus of birds

Eopsaltria is a genus of small forest passerines known in Australia as the yellow robins. They belong to the Australasian robin family Petroicidae. The name is derived from the Ancient Greek for "dawn singer/song" because of their dawn chorus. They are inquisitive and bold birds, and have been reported perching on the shoulders or boots of people in the bush. Open eucalyptus woodlands are their preferred habitat. The ornithologist John Gould likened the behaviour and mannerisms of the eastern and western yellow robin to those of the European robin. The name "yellow robin" itself was applied to the eastern yellow robin by the early settlers of New South Wales.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yellow-bellied flyrobin</span> Species of songbird native to New Caledonia

The yellow-bellied flyrobin is a species of passerine bird in the Australasian robin family Petroicidae. It is the only species in the genus Cryptomicroeca. The yellow-bellied flyrobin is endemic to New Caledonia, where it occurs on the island of Grande Terre. It occupies a range of habitats, including dry lowlands, woodland, Pinus and Pandanus forest, and humid forest from sea level up to 1,525 m (5,000 ft).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western yellow robin</span> Species of songbird native to southern Australia

The western yellow robin is a species of bird in the Australasian robin family, Petroicidae, native to Australia. Described by John Gould in 1838, the western yellow robin and its Australian relatives are not closely related to either the European or American robins, but they appear to be an early offshoot of the Passerida group of songbirds. Ranging between 13.5 and 15.5 cm long, it has grey upperparts, and a grey breast and head, broken by whitish streaks near the bill and below the eye, with a conspicuous yellow belly. The sexes are similar in appearance. Two subspecies are recognized: subspecies griseogularis, which has a yellow rump, and subspecies rosinae with an olive-green rump.

<i>Microeca</i> Genus of birds

Microeca is a genus of passerine birds in the Australasian robin family Petroicidae. The species in this genus are commonly known as flyrobins.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lemon-bellied flyrobin</span> Species of bird

The lemon-bellied flyrobin or lemon-bellied flycatcher is a species of bird in the family Petroicidae. Found in Australia, Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea, its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical mangrove forests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yellow-legged flyrobin</span> Species of songbird native to New Guinea and northern Australia

The yellow-legged flyrobin or yellow-legged flycatcher is a species of passerine bird in the Australasian robin family Petroicidae. It is found in New Guinea and Cape York Peninsula. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest and subtropical or tropical moist montane forest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Canary flyrobin</span> Species of songbird native to New Guinea

The canary flyrobin, also known as the Papuan flycatcher, canary robin, canary flycatcher, or montane flycatcher, is a species of bird in the family Petroicidae. It is found in New Guinea. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests with elevations from 1,100–3,500 m (3,609–11,483 ft). Currently, its population is believed to be stable.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White-rumped robin</span> Species of songbird native to New Guinea

The white-rumped robin is a species of bird in the family Petroicidae. It is found in New Guinea. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montane forests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slaty robin</span> Species of songbird native to New Guinea

The slaty robin, also known as the blue-grey robin, is a species of bird in the family Petroicidae, present in the New Guinea Highlands and sparsely in the island's northern areas. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pink robin</span> Species of songbird native to southeastern Australia

The pink robin is a small passerine bird native to southeastern Australia. Its natural habitats are cool temperate forests of far southeastern Australia. Like many brightly coloured robins of the family Petroicidae, it is sexually dimorphic. Measuring 13.5 cm (5.3 in) in length, the robin has a small, thin, black bill, and dark brown eyes and legs. The male has a distinctive white forehead spot and pink breast, with grey-black upperparts, wings and tail. The belly is white. The female has grey-brown plumage. The position of the pink robin and its Australian relatives on the passerine family tree is unclear; the Petroicidae are not closely related to either the European or American robins, but appear to be an early offshoot of the Passerida group of songbirds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White-browed robin</span> Species of bird

The white-browed robin is a species of bird in the family Petroicidae. It is endemic to north-eastern Australia. Its natural habitats are forest, woodland and scrub, often near water. It formerly included the buff-sided robin as a subspecies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pacific robin</span> Species of songbird native to islands in southwestern Pacific

The Pacific robin, is a red-breasted Australasian robin in the passerine bird genus Petroica found in Melanesia and Polynesia. It is similar in plumage to the scarlet robin of Australia, and until recently the two were considered conspecific until split in 1999 by Schodde and Mason. Thirteen subspecies of Pacific robin are currently recognised, and these subspecies display considerable variation in plumage, foraging preferences, and habitat. The Norfolk robin was previously considered a subspecies of the Pacific robin, but is now considered a distinct species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paperbark flycatcher</span> Species of bird

The paperbark flycatcher, also known as the little restless flycatcher, is a passerine bird in the family Monarchidae. It occurs in tropical woodland and riverine habitats of northern Australia and southern New Guinea. Previously, some authorities lumped the paperbark flycatcher as a distinctive subspecies of the restless flycatcher of southern and eastern Australia, with which it forms a superspecies.

References

  1. ↑ BirdLife International (2016). "Microeca fascinans". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2016: e.T22704769A93984438. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22704769A93984438.en . Retrieved 13 November 2021.
  2. 1 2 Simpson, Ken, Day, N. and Trusler, P. (6th edn., 1999). Field Guide to the Birds of Australia. Ringwood, Victoria: Penguin Books Australia ISBN   067087918-5.
  3. 1 2 Slater, Peter (1974) A Field Guide to Australian Birds: Passerines. Adelaide: Rigby. ISBN   085179813-6
  4. ↑ Gill, F. and D. Donsker, eds. (2020). IOC World Bird List (v 10.1). Doi 10.14344/IOC.ML.10.1. http://www.worldbirdnames.org/
  5. ↑ Loynes, K., Joseph, L. and Keogh, J. S. 2009. Multi-locus phylogeny clarifies the systematics of the Australo-Papuan robins (Family Petroicidae, Passeriformes). – Mol. Phyl. Evol. 53: 212–219. doi : 10.1016/j.ympev.2009.05.012
  6. ↑ Ericson, p. G. P., Irestedt, M. and Johansson, U.S. 2003. Evolution, biogeography, and patters of diversification in passerine birds. – J. Avian. Biol. 34: 3–15. doi : 10.1034/j.1600-048X.2003.03121.x
  7. 1 2 Christidis, L., Irestedt, M., Rowe, D., Boles, W. E. and Norman, J. A. 2011. Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA phylogenies reveal a complex evolutionary history in the Australasian robin (Passeriformes: Petroicidae). – Mol. Phyl. Evol. 61: 726–738. doi : 10.1016/j.ympev.2011.08.014
  8. ↑ Sangster, G., Alstrom, P., Forsmark, E. and Olsson, U. 2010. Multi-locus phylogenetic analysis of Old World chats and flycatchers reveals extensive paraphyly at family, subfamily and genus level (Aves Muscicapidae) – Mol. Phyl. Evol. 57: 380–392. doi : 10.1016/j.ympev.2010.07.008
  9. 1 2 Jobling, James A. "Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird-names" . Retrieved 10 April 2020.
  10. ↑ Pizzey, Graham; Doyle, Roy (1980) A Field Guide to the Birds of Australia. Collins Publishers, Sydney. ISBN   073222436-5
  11. ↑ Morcombe, Michael (2012) Field guide to Australian birds. Pascal Press, Glebe, NSW. Revised edition. ISBN   978174021417-9
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 Reid, J. R. W. and Gillen, J. S. 2013. Riparian bird assembladges of Cooper Creek, South Australia Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine . – South Australian Arid Lands Natural Resources Management Board.
  13. ↑ Bell, H. L. 2008. Abundance and seasonality of the savannah avifauna at Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea. – Ibis 124: 252–274. doi : 10.1111/j.1474-919X.1982.tb03772.x
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Wood, K. A, Thompson, N. and Ley, A. J. 2008. Breeding Territories and Breeding Success of the Jacky Winter Microeca fasinans in South-eastern Queensland. – Australian Field Ornithology 25: 121–131. ISSN   1448-0107
  15. 1 2 3 4 Keast, A. 1994. The Annual Cycle in a Vocalisation Context: a Comparison of the Eastern Yellow Robin Eopsaltria australis and the Jacky Winter Microeca leucophaea. – Emu 94: 230–238. doi : 10.1071/MU9940230
  16. ↑ Moyer, B. R. and Wagenbach, G. E. 1995. Sunning by Black Noddies (Anous minutus) may kill chewing lice (Quadraceps hopkinsi). – Auk. 112: 1073–1077. ISSN   0004-8038
  17. 1 2 3 Recher, H. F., Davis, W. E. and Calver, M. C. 2002. Comparative foraging ecology of five species of ground-pouncing birds in western Australian woodlands with comments on species decline. – Ornithol. Sci. 1: 29–40.
  18. 1 2 Miller, J. R. and Cale, P. 2000. Behavioural mechanisms and habitat use by birds in a fragmented agricultural landscape. – Ecological Application. 10: 1732–1748. doi : 10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010
  19. 1 2 Recher, H. F. and Davis Jr, W. E. 2002. Foraging profile of a Salmon Gum woodland avifauna in Western Australia. – Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. 85: 103–111.
  20. ↑ Winkler, D. W. and Walter, J. R. 1983. The determination of clutch size in precocial birds. – Current Ornithology. 1: 33–68. doi : 10.1007/978-1-4615-6781-3_2
  21. 1 2 Reid, J. R. W. 1999. Threatened and declining birds in the New South Wales Sheep-Wheat Belt: I. Diagnosis, characteristics and management. Consultancy report to the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service. – CSIRO Wildlife and Ecology.
  22. 1 2 3 4 Ford, H. A. 2011. The causes of decline of birds of eucalypt woodlands: advances in our knowledge over the last 10 years. – Emu 111: 1–9. doi : 10.1071/MU09115
  23. ↑ Ford, H. A., Barrett, G. W., Saunders, D. A. and Recher, H. F. 2001. Why have birds in the woodlands of Southern Australia declined? – Biol. Cons. 97: 71–88.
  24. ↑ Watson, J., Watson, A., Paull, D. and Freudenberger, D. 2003. Woodland fragmentation is causing the decline of species and functional groups of birds in southeastern Australia. – Pac. Cons. Bio 8: 261–270. ISSN   1038-2097
  25. ↑ Keast, A. 1995. Habitat loss and species loss: the birds of Sydney 50 years ago and now. – Aust. Zool. 30: 3–25. doi : 10.7882/AZ.1995.002
  26. ↑ Keast, A. 1996. Wing shape in insectivorous passerines inhabiting New Guinea and Australian rain-forests and eucalypt forest/eucalypt woodlands. – Auk 113: 94–104. ISSN   0004-8038
  27. ↑ Debus, S. J. S. 2008. The effect of Noisy Miners in small bush birds: an unofficial cull and its outcome. – Pac. Cons. Bio. 14: 185–190. ISSN   1038-2097
  28. ↑ Neuhӓuser, M. 2007. Climate change and the arrival of self-introduced bird species in New Zealand. – Notornis. 54: 11–14.
  29. ↑ Meijer, T., Nienaber, U., Langer, U. and Trillmich, F. 1999. Temperature and timing of egg laying of European Starlings. – Condor. 101: 124–132 doi : 10.2307/1370453
  30. 1 2 Mac Nally, R., Bennett, A. F., Thomson, J. R., Radford, J. Q., Unmack, G., Horrocks, G. and Vesk, P. A. 2009. Collapse of an avifauna: climate change appears to exacerbate habitat loss and degradation. – Diversity Distrib. 15: 720–730. doi : 10.1111/j.1472-4642.2009.00578.
  31. ↑ Peh, K. S. H. 2007. Potential effects of climate change on elevational distributions of tropical birds in Southeast Asia. – Condor. 109: 437–441. doi : 10.1650/0010-5422(2007)109
  32. ↑ Lindenmayer, D. B., Wood, J. T., Cunningham, R. B., MacGregor, C., Crane, M., Michael, M., Montague-Drake, R., Brown, B., Muntz, R. and Gill, A. M. 2008. Testing hypotheses associated with bird responses to wildfire. – Ecological Application. 18: 1967–1983. doi : 10.1890/07-1943.1
  33. ↑ Ford, H. A., Walters, J. R., Cooper, C. B., Debus, S. J. S. and Doerr, V. A. J. 2009. Extinction debt or habitat change? – Ongoing losses of woodland birds in north-eastern New South Wales, Australia. – Biol. Cons. 142: 3182–3190.
  34. ↑ Gardner, J. L., Heinsohn, R. and Joseph, L. 2009. Shifting latitudinal clines in avian body size correlate with global warming in Australian passerines. – Proc. R. Soc. B – 1–8. ISSN   1471-2954
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.