| Latin grammar |
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In linguistics and grammar, conjugation has two basic meanings. [1] One meaning is the creation of derived forms of a verb from basic forms, or principal parts.
The second meaning of the word conjugation is a group of verbs which all have the same pattern of inflections. Thus all those Latin verbs which in the present tense have 1st singular -ō, 2nd singular -ās, and infinitive -āre are said to belong to the 1st conjugation, those with 1st singular -eō, 2nd singular -ēs and infinitive -ēre belong to the 2nd conjugation, and so on. The number of conjugations of regular verbs is usually said to be four.
The word "conjugation" comes from the Latin coniugātiō, a calque of the Greek συζυγία (syzygia), literally "yoking together (horses into a team)".
For examples of verbs and verb groups for each inflectional class, see the Wiktionary appendix pages for first conjugation, second conjugation, third conjugation, and fourth conjugation.
The ancient Romans themselves, beginning with Varro (1st century BC), originally divided their verbs into three conjugations (coniugationes verbis accidunt tres: prima, secunda, tertia "there are three different conjugations for verbs: the first, second, and third" (Donatus), 4th century AD), according to whether the ending of the 2nd person singular had an a, an e or an i in it. [2] However, others, such as Sacerdos (3rd century AD), Dositheus (4th century AD) and Priscian [3] (c. 500 AD), recognised four different groups. [4]
In modern times grammarians [5] generally recognise four conjugations according to the ending of the active infinitive: namely -āre, -ēre, -ere, or -īre, for example: (1) amō, amāre "to love", (2) videō, vidēre "to see", (3) regō, regere "to rule" and capiō, capere "to capture", (4) audiō, audīre "to hear". (3rd conjugation verbs ending in -iō such as capiō are sometimes known as "mixed conjugation" since they use a mixture of 3rd and 4th conjugation endings.)
In addition to regular verbs, which belong to one or other of the four regular conjugations, there are also a few irregular verbs, which have a different pattern of endings. The most frequent of these is the verb sum, esse "to be" together with its prefixed derivatives.
There also exist deponent Latin verbs, which though active in meaning have endings identical to the passive endings of ordinary verbs. Examples in the different conjugations are: (1) moror, morārī "to delay", (2) polliceor, pollicērī "to promise", (3) sequor, sequī "to follow" and regredior, regredī "to go back", (4) mentior, mentīrī "to lie (tell a lie)". Some verbs are semi-deponent, using passive forms for the perfect tenses only.
A verb's full paradigm relies on multiple stems. The present indicative active and the present infinitive are both based on the present stem.
It is not possible to infer the stems for other tenses from the present stem. This means that, although the infinitive active form normally shows the verb conjugation, knowledge of several different forms is necessary to be able to confidently produce the full range of forms for any particular verb.
In a dictionary, Latin verbs are listed with four "principal parts" (or fewer for deponent and defective verbs), which allow the student to deduce the other conjugated forms of the verbs. These are:
The first conjugation is characterized by the vowel ā and can be recognized by the -āre ending of the present active infinitive form. The infectum tenses conjugate as follows (see also their meaning):
| Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present | Future | Imperfect | Present | Imperfect | |||
| Active | I love | I will love | I was loving | I may love | I might love | ||
| I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they | amō amās amat amāmus amātis amant | amābō amābis amābit amābimus amābitis amābunt | amābam amābās amābat amābāmus amābātis amābant | amem amēs amet amēmus amētis ament | amārem amārēs amāret amārēmus amārētis amārent | ||
| Passive | I am loved | I will be loved | I was being loved | I may be loved | I might be loved | ||
| I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they | amor amāris amātur amāmur amāminī amantur | amābor amāberis/e* amābitur amābimur amābiminī amābuntur | amābar amābāris/e* amābātur amābāmur amābāminī amābantur | amer amēris/e* amētur amēmur amēminī amentur | amārer amārēris/e* amārētur amārēmur amārēminī amārentur | ||
* The 2nd person singular passive amāberis, amābāris, amēris, amārēris can be shortened to amābere, amābāre, amēre, amārēre. -re was the regular form in early Latin and (except in the present indicative) in Cicero; -ris was preferred later. [6]
In early Latin (Plautus), the 3rd singular endings -at and -et were pronounced -āt and -ēt with a long vowel. [6]
Other forms:
The principal parts usually adhere to one of the following patterns:
The verb dō "I give" is irregular in that except in the 2nd singular dās and imperative dā, the a is short, e.g. dabō "I will give".
The a is also short in the supine statum and its derivatives, but the other parts of stō "I stand" are regular.
Deponent verbs in this conjugation all follow the pattern below, which is the passive of the first type above: [7]
The three perfectum tenses of the 1st conjugation go as in the following table:
| Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Perfect | Future perfect | Pluperfect | Perfect | Pluperfect | |||
| Active | I loved | I will have loved | I had loved | I loved | I had loved | ||
| I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they | amāvī amāvistī amāvit amāvimus amāvistis amāvērunt/-ēre* | amāverō amāverīs/is amāverit amāverīmus/-imus amāverītis/-itis amāverint | amāveram amāverās amāverat amāverāmus amāverātis amāverant | amāverim amāverīs amāverit amāverīmus amāverītis amāverint | amā(vi)ssem* amāvissēs amāvisset amāvissēmus amāvissētis amāvissent | ||
| Passive | I was loved | I will have been loved | I had been loved | I was loved | I had been loved | ||
| I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they | amātus sum amātus es amātus est amātī sumus amātī estis amātī sunt | amātus erō amātus eris amātus erit amātī erimus amātī eritis amātī erunt | amātus eram amātus erās amātus erat amātī erāmus amātī erātis amātī erant | amātus sim amātus sīs amātus sit amātī sīmus amātī sītis amātī sint | amātus essem amātus essēs amātus esset amātī essēmus amātī essētis amātī essent | ||
In poetry (and also sometimes in prose, e.g. Livy), the 3rd person plural of the perfect indicative is often amāvēre instead of amāvērunt. Occasionally the form amāverunt is also found. [8]
In early Latin, the future perfect indicative had a short i in amāveris, amāverimus, amāveritis, but by the time of Cicero these forms were usually pronounced with a long i, in the same way as in the perfect subjunctive. [9] Virgil has a short i for both tenses; Horace uses both forms for both tenses; Ovid uses both forms for the future perfect, but a long i in the perfect subjunctive. [10]
The -v- of the perfect active tenses sometimes drops out, especially in the pluperfect subjunctive: amāssem for amāvissem. Forms such as amārat and amāstī are also found.
The passive tenses also have feminine and neuter forms, e.g. amāta est "she was loved", nūntiātum est "it was announced".
Forms made with fuī instead of sum and forem instead of essem are also found, for example amātus fuī, amātus fuerō, amātus forem and so on, but these are not common in classical Latin. See Latin tenses.
For other meanings of the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive, see Latin tenses#Jussive subjunctive.
Other forms:
The second conjugation is characterized by the vowel ē, and can be recognized by the -eō ending of the first person present indicative and the -ēre ending of the present active infinitive form:
| Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present | Future | Imperfect | Present | Imperfect | |||
| Active | I see | I will see | I was seeing | I may see | I might see | ||
| I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they | videō vidēs videt vidēmus vidētis vident | vidēbō vidēbis vidēbit vidēbimus vidēbitis vidēbunt | vidēbam vidēbās vidēbat vidēbāmus vidēbātis vidēbant | videam videās videat videāmus videātis videant | vidērem vidērēs vidēret vidērēmus vidērētis vidērent | ||
| Passive | I am seen | I will be seen | I was being seen | I may be seen | I might be seen | ||
| I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they | videor vidēris vidētur vidēmur vidēminī videntur | vidēbor vidēberis/e vidēbitur vidēbimur vidēbiminī vidēbuntur | vidēbar vidēbāris/e vidēbātur vidēbāmur vidēbāminī vidēbantur | videar videāris/e videātur videāmur videāminī videantur | vidērer vidērēris/e vidērētur vidērēmur vidērēminī vidērentur | ||
The passive videor also often means "I seem".
Other forms:
The principal parts usually adhere to one of the following patterns:
In verbs with perfect in -vī, syncopated (i.e. abbreviated) forms are common, such as dēlēram, dēlēssem, dēlēstī for dēlēveram, dēlēvissem, dēlēvistī. [11]
Deponent verbs in this conjugation are few. They mostly go like the passive of terreō, but fateor and confiteor have a perfect participle with ss: [12]
The following are semi-deponent, that is, they are deponent only in the three perfect tenses: [13]
The third conjugation has a variable short stem vowel, which may be e, i, or u in different environments. Verbs of this conjugation end in -ere in the present active infinitive. Deponent verbs have the infinitive -ī.
| Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present | Future | Imperfect | Present | Imperfect | |||
| Active | I lead | I will lead | I was leading | I may lead | I might lead | ||
| I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they | dūcō dūcis dūcit dūcimus dūcitis dūcunt | dūcam dūcēs dūcet dūcēmus dūcētis dūcent | dūcēbam dūcēbās dūcēbat dūcēbāmus dūcēbātis dūcēbant | dūcam dūcās dūcat dūcāmus dūcātis dūcant | dūcerem dūcerēs dūceret dūcerēmus dūcerētis dūcerent | ||
| Passive | I am led | I will be led | I was being led | I may be led | I might be led | ||
| I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they | dūcor dūceris dūcitur dūcimur dūciminī dūcuntur | dūcar dūcēris/re dūcētur dūcēmur dūcēminī dūcentur | dūcēbar dūcēbāris/re dūcēbātur dūcēbāmur dūcēbāminī dūcēbantur | dūcar dūcāris/re dūcātur dūcāmur dūcāminī dūcantur | dūcerer dūcerēris/re dūcerētur dūcerēmur dūcerēminī dūcerentur | ||
The future tense in the 3rd and 4th conjugation (-am, -ēs, -et etc.) differs from that in the 1st and 2nd conjugation (-bō, -bis, -bit etc.).
Other forms:
Four 3rd conjugation verbs usually have no ending in the imperative singular: dūc! "lead!", dīc! "say!", fer! "bring!", fac! "do!".
Others, like curre "run!", have the ending -e. [6]
There is no regular rule for constructing the perfect stem of third-conjugation verbs, but the following patterns are used:
Although dō, dare, dedī, datum "to give" is 1st conjugation, its compounds are 3rd conjugation and have internal reduplication:
Likewise the compounds of sistō have internal reduplication. Although sistō is transitive, its compounds are intransitive: [14]
Deponent verbs in the 3rd conjugation include the following:
There are also a number of 3rd conjugation deponents with the ending -scor:
Deponent in some tenses only is the following: [13]
The following is deponent only in the infectum tenses:
Intermediate between the third and fourth conjugation are the third-conjugation verbs with suffix –iō. These resemble the fourth conjugation in some forms.
| Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present | Future | Imperfect | Present | Imperfect | |||
| Active | I capture | I will capture | I was capturing | I may capture | I might capture | ||
| I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they | capiō capis capit capimus capitis capiunt | capiam capiēs capiet capiēmus capiētis capient | capiēbam capiēbās capiēbat capiēbāmus capiēbātis capiēbant | capiam capiās capiat capiāmus capiātis capiant | caperem caperēs caperet caperēmus caperētis caperent | ||
| Passive | I am captured | I will be captured | I was being captured | I may be captured | I might be captured | ||
| I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they | capior caperis capitur capimur capiminī capiuntur | capiar capiēris/re capiētur capiēmur capiēminī capientur | capiēbar capiēbāris/re capiēbātur capiēbāmur capiēbāminī capiēbantur | capiar capiāris/re capiātur capiāmur capiāminī capiantur | caperer caperēris/re caperētur caperēmur caperēminī caperentur | ||
Other forms:
Some examples are:
Deponent verbs in this group include:
The fourth conjugation is characterized by the vowel ī and can be recognized by the -īre ending of the present active infinitive. Deponent verbs have the infinitive -īrī:
| Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present | Future | Imperfect | Present | Imperfect | |||
| Active | I hear | I will hear | I was hearing | I may hear | I might hear | ||
| I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they | audiō audīs audit audīmus audītis audiunt | audiam audiēs audiet audiēmus audiētis audient | audiēbam audiēbās audiēbat audiēbāmus audiēbātis audiēbant | audiam audiās audiat audiāmus audiātis audiant | audīrem audīrēs audīret audīrēmus audīrētis audīrent | ||
| Passive | I am heard | I will be heard | I was being heard | I may be heard | I might be heard | ||
| I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they | audior audīris audītur audīmur audīminī audiuntur | audiar audiēris/re audiētur audiēmur audiēminī audientur | audiēbar audiēbāris/re audiēbātur audiēbāmur audiēbāminī audiēbantur | audiar audiāris/re audiātur audiāmur audiāminī audiantur | audīrer audīrēris/re audīrētur audīrēmur audīrēminī audīrentur | ||
Other forms:
Principal parts of verbs in the fourth conjugation generally adhere to the following patterns:
Deponent verbs in the 4th conjugation include the following: [16]
The verb orior, orīrī, ortus sum "to arise" is also regarded as 4th conjugation, although some parts, such as the 3rd singular present tense oritur and imperfect subjunctive orerer, have a short vowel like the 3rd conjugation. But its compound adorior "to rise up, attack" is entirely 4th conjugation.
In the perfect tenses, shortened forms without -v- are common, for example, audīstī, audiērunt, audierat, audīsset for audīvistī, audīvērunt, audīverat, audīvisset. Cicero, however, prefers the full forms audīvī, audīvit to audiī, audiit. [11]
The verb sum, esse, fuī "to be" is the most common verb in Latin. It is conjugated as follows: [17]
| Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present | Future | Imperfect | Present | Imperfect | |||
| Active | I am | I will be | I was | I may be | I might be | ||
| I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they | sum es est sumus estis sunt | erō eris erit erimus eritis erunt | eram erās erat erāmus erātis erant | sim sīs sit sīmus sītis sint | essem essēs esset essēmus essētis essent | ||
| Active | I am able | I will be able | I was able | I may be able | I might be able | ||
| I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they | possum potes potest possumus potestis possunt | poterō poteris poterit poterimus poteritis poterunt | poteram poterās poterat poterāmus poterātis poterant | possim possīs possit possīmus possītis possint | possem possēs posset possēmus possētis possent | ||
In early Latin (e.g. Plautus), siem, siēs, siēt can be found for the present subjunctive sim, sīs, sit. In poetry the subjunctive fuam, fuās, fuat also sometimes occurs. [18]
An alternative imperfect subjunctive is sometimes made using forem, forēs, foret etc. See further: Latin tenses#Foret.
Other forms:
The present participle is found only in the compounds absēns "absent" and praesēns "present". [18]
In Plautus and Lucretius, an infinitive potesse is sometimes found for posse "to be able".
The principal parts of these verbs are as follows:
The perfect tenses conjugate in the regular way.
For the difference in meaning between eram and fuī, see Latin tenses#Difference between eram and fuī
The verb volō and its derivatives nōlō and mālō (short for magis volō) resemble a 3rd conjugation verb, but the present subjunctive ending in -im is different:
| Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present | Future | Imperfect | Present | Imperfect | |||
| Active | I want | I will want | I was wanting | I may want | I might want | ||
| I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they | volō vīs vult volumus vultis volunt | volam volēs volet volēmus volētis volent | volēbam volēbās volēbat volēbāmus volēbātis volēbant | velim velīs velit velīmus velītis velint | vellem vellēs vellet vellēmus vellētis vellent | ||
| Active | I am unwilling | I will be unwilling | I was unwilling | I may be unwilling | I might be unwilling | ||
| I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they | nōlō nōn vīs nōn vult nōlumus nōn vultis nōlunt | nōlam nōlēs nōlet nōlēmus nōlētis nōlent | nōlēbam nōlēbās nōlēbat nōlēbāmus nōlēbātis nōlēbant | nōlim nōlīs nōlit nōlīmus nōlītis nōlint | nōllem nōllēs nōllet nōllēmus nōllētis nōllent | ||
| Active | I prefer | I will prefer | I was preferring | I may prefer | I might prefer | ||
| I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they | mālō māvīs māvult mālumus māvultis mālunt | mālam mālēs mālet mālēmus mālētis mālent | mālēbam mālēbās mālēbat mālēbāmus mālēbātis mālēbant | mālim mālīs mālit mālīmus mālītis mālint | māllem māllēs māllet māllēmus māllētis māllent | ||
The spellings volt and voltis were used up until the time of Cicero for vult and vultis. [19]
These verbs are not used in the passive.
Other forms:
Principal parts:
The perfect tenses are formed regularly.
The verb eō "I go" is an irregular 4th conjugation verb, in which the i of the stem sometimes becomes e. Like 1st and 2nd conjugation verbs, it uses the future -bō, -bis, -bit: [20]
| Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present | Future | Imperfect | Present | Imperfect | |||
| Active | I go | I will go | I was going | I may go | I might go | ||
| I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they | eō īs it īmus ītis eunt | ībō ībis ībit ībimus ībitis ībunt | ībam ībās ībat ībāmus ībātis ībant | eam eās eat eāmus eātis eant | īrem īrēs īret īrēmus īrētis īrent | ||
Other forms:
The impersonal passive forms ītur "they go", itum est "they went" are sometimes found. [21]
The principal parts of some verbs which conjugate like eō are the following:
In the perfect tenses of these verbs, the -v- is almost always omitted, especially in the compounds, [22] although the form exīvit is common in the Vulgate Bible translation.
In some perfect forms, the vowels ii- are contracted to ī-: second person singular perfect īstī, second person plural perfect īstis; pluperfect subjunctive īssem, īssēs, ..., īssent; perfect infinitive īsse (the form iisse is also attested).
The verb queō, quīre, quiī/quīvī, quitum "to be able" has forms similar to eō.
The verb ferō, ferre, tulī, lātum "to bring, to bear, to carry" is 3rd conjugation, but irregular in that the vowel following the root fer- is sometimes omitted. The perfect tense tulī and supine stem lātum are also irregularly formed. [23]
| Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present | Future | Imperfect | Present | Imperfect | |||
| Active | I bring | I will bring | I was bringing | I may bring | I might bring | ||
| I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they | ferō fers fert ferimus fertis ferunt | feram ferēs feret ferēmus ferētis ferent | ferēbam ferēbās ferēbat ferēbāmus ferēbātis ferēbant | feram ferās ferat ferāmus ferātis ferant | ferrem ferrēs ferret ferrēmus ferrētis ferrent | ||
| Passive | I am brought | I will be brought | I was being brought | I may be brought | I might be brought | ||
| I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they | feror ferris fertur ferimur feriminī feruntur | ferar ferēris/re ferētur ferēmur ferēminī ferentur | ferēbar ferēbāris/re ferēbātur ferēbāmur ferēbāminī ferēbantur | ferar ferāris/re ferātur ferāmur ferāminī ferantur | ferrer ferrēris/re ferrētur ferrēmur ferrēminī ferrentur | ||
The future tense in the 3rd and 4th conjugation (-am, -ēs, -et etc.) differs from that in the 1st and 2nd conjugation (-bō, -bis, -bit etc.).
Other forms:
Compounds of ferō include the following: [24] The principal parts of some verbs which conjugate like ferō are the following:
The perfect tense sustulī, however, belongs to the verb tollō:
The irregular verb fīō, fierī, factus sum "to become, to happen, to be done, to be made" as well as being a verb in its own right serves as the passive of faciō, facere, fēcī, factum "to do, to make". [25] The perfect tenses are identical with the perfect passive tenses of faciō.
| Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present | Future | Imperfect | Present | Imperfect | |||
| Active | I become | I will become | I was becoming | I may become | I might become | ||
| I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they | fīō fīs fit (fīmus) (fītis) fīunt | fīam fīēs fīet fīēmus fīētis fīent | fīēbam fīēbās fīēbat fīēbāmus fīēbātis fīēbant | fīam fīās fīat fīāmus fīātis fīant | fierem fierēs fieret fierēmus fierētis fierent | ||
The 1st and 2nd plural forms are almost never found.
Other forms:
The verb edō, edere/ēsse, ēdī, ēsum "to eat" has regular 3rd conjugation forms appearing alongside irregular ones: [26]
| Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present | Future | Imperfect | Present | Imperfect | |||
| Active | I eat | I will eat | I was eating | I may eat | I might eat | ||
| I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they | edō edis, ēs edit, ēst edimus editis, ēstis edunt | edam edēs edet edēmus edētis edent | edēbam edēbās edēbat edēbāmus edēbātis edēbant | edam, edim edās, edīs edat, edit edāmus, edīmus edātis, edītis edant, edint | ederem, ēssem ederēs, ēssēs ederet, ēsset ederēmus, ēssēmus ederētis, ēssētis ederent, ēssent | ||
Other forms:
The passive form ēstur "it is eaten" is also found.
The present subjunctive edim, edīs, edit etc. is found mostly in early Latin.
In writing, there is a possibility of confusion between the forms of this verb and those of sum "I am" and ēdō "I give out, put forth"; for example, ēsse "to eat" vs. esse "to be"; edit "he eats" vs. ēdit "he gives out".
The compound verb comedō, comedere/comēsse, comēdī, comēsum "to eat up, consume" is similar.
The non-finite forms of verbs are participles, infinitives, supines, gerunds and gerundives. The verbs used are:
There are four participles: present active, perfect passive, future active, and future passive (= the gerundive).
| Participles | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| laudāre | terrēre | petere | capere | audīre | ||||||
| Present active | laudāns, -antis | terrēns, -entis | petēns, -entis | capiēns, -entis | audiēns, -entis | |||||
| Perfect passive | laudātus, -a, -um | territus, -a, -um | petītus, -a, -um | captus, -a, -um | audītus, -a, -um | |||||
| Future active | laudātūrus, -a, -um | territūrus, -a, -um | petītūrus, -a, -um | captūrus, -a, -um | audītūrus, -a, -um | |||||
| Gerundive | laudandus, -a, -um | terrendus, -a, -um | petendus, -a, -um | capiendus, -a, -um | audiēndus, -a, -um | |||||
There are seven main infinitives. They are in the present active, present passive, perfect active, perfect passive, future active, future passive, and potential active. Further infinitives can be made using the gerundive.
| laudāre | terrēre | petere | capere | audīre | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present active | laudāre | terrēre | petere | capere | audīre |
| Present passive | laudārī | terrērī | petī | capī | audīrī |
| Perfect active | laudāvisse | terruisse | petīvisse | cēpisse | audīvisse |
| Perfect passive | laudātus esse | territus esse | petītus esse | captus esse | audītus esse |
| Future active | laudātūrus esse | territūrus esse | petītūrus esse | captūrus esse | audītūrus esse |
| Future passive | laudātum īrī | territum īrī | petītum īrī | captum īrī | audītum īrī |
| Potential | laudātūrus fuisse | territūrus fuisse | petītūrus fuisse | captūrus fuisse | audītūrus fuisse |
The future passive infinitive was not very commonly used. The Romans themselves often used an alternate expression, fore ut followed by a subjunctive clause.
The supine is the fourth principal part of the verb, as given in Latin dictionaries. It resembles a masculine noun of the fourth declension. Supines only occur in the accusative and ablative cases.
| Supine | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| laudāre | terrēre | petere | capere | audīre | |
| Accusative | laudātum | territum | petītum | captum | audītum |
| Ablative | laudātū | territū | petītū | captū | audītū |
The gerund is formed similarly to the present active participle. However, the -ns becomes an -ndus, and the preceding ā or ē is shortened. Gerunds are neuter nouns of the second declension, but the nominative case is not present. The gerund is a noun, meaning "the act of doing (the verb)", and forms a suppletive paradigm to the infinitive, which cannot be declined. For example, the genitive form laudandī can mean "of praising", the dative form laudandō can mean "for praising", the accusative form laudandum can mean "praising", and the ablative form laudandō can mean "by praising", "in respect to praising", etc.
| Gerund | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| laudāre | terrēre | petere | capere | audīre | ||
| Accusative | laudandum | terrendum | petendum | capiendum | audiendum | |
| Genitive | laudandī | terrendī | petendī | capiendī | audiendī | |
| Dative | laudandō | terrendō | petendō | capiendō | audiendō | |
| Ablative | ||||||
One common use of the gerund is with the preposition ad to indicate purpose. For example, paratus ad oppugnandum could be translated as "ready to attack". However the gerund was avoided when an object was introduced, and a passive construction with the gerundive was preferred. For example, for "ready to attack the enemy" the construction paratus ad hostes oppugnandos is preferred over paratus ad hostes oppugnandum. [29]
The gerundive has a form similar to that of the gerund, but it is a first and second declension adjective, and functions as a future passive participle (see § Participles above). It means "(which is) to be ...ed". Often, the gerundive is used with part of the verb esse, to show obligation.
| Gerundive | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| laudāre | terrēre | petere | capere | audīre |
| laudandus, -a, -um | terrendus, -a, -um | petendus, -a, -um | capiendus, -a, -um | audiendus, -a, -um |
An older form of the 3rd and 4th conjugation gerundive ends in -undum, e.g. (faciundum for faciendum). [6] This ending is also found with the gerundive of eō 'I go': eundum est 'it is necessary to go'.
For some examples of uses of Latin gerundives, see the Gerundive article.
There are two periphrastic conjugations. One is active, and the other is passive.
The first periphrastic conjugation uses the future participle. It is combined with the forms of esse. It is translated as "I am going to praise," "I was going to praise", etc.
| Conjugation | Translation | |
|---|---|---|
| Pres. ind. | laudātūrus sum | I am going to praise |
| Imp. ind. | laudātūrus eram | I was going to praise |
| Fut. ind. | laudātūrus erō | I shall be going to praise |
| Perf. ind. | laudātūrus fuī | I have been going to praise |
| Plup. ind. | laudātūrus fueram | I had been going to praise |
| Fut. perf. ind. | laudātūrus fuerō | I shall have been going to praise |
| Pres. subj. | laudātūrus sim | I may be going to praise |
| Imp. subj. | laudātūrus essem | I should be going to praise |
| Perf. subj. | laudātūrus fuerim | I may have been going to praise |
| Plup. subj. | laudātūrus fuissem | I should have been going to praise |
The second periphrastic conjugation uses the gerundive. It is combined with the forms of esse and expresses necessity. It is translated as "I am needing to be praised", "I was needing to be praised", etc., or as "I have to (i.e., must) be praised", "I had to be praised," etc. It may also be translated in English word by word, as in "You are to be (i.e., must be) praised." [30]
| Conjugation | Translation | |
|---|---|---|
| Pres. ind. | laudandus sum | I am needing to be praised |
| Imp. ind. | laudandus eram | I was needing to be praised |
| Fut. ind. | laudandus erō | I will be needing to be praised |
| Perf. ind. | laudandus fuī | I was needing to be praised |
| Plup. ind. | laudandus fueram | I had been needing to be praised |
| Fut. perf. ind. | laudandus fuerō | I will have been needing to be praised |
| Pres. subj. | laudandus sim | I may be needing to be praised |
| Imp. subj. | laudandus essem | I should be needing to be praised |
| Perf. subj. | laudandus fuerim | I may have been needing to be praised |
| Plup. subj. | laudandus fuissem | I should have been needing to be praised |
| Pres. inf. | laudandus esse | To be needing to be praised |
| Perf. inf. | laudandus fuisse | To have been needing to be praised |
Deponent verbs are verbs that are passive in form (that is, conjugated as though in the passive voice) but active in meaning. These verbs have only three principal parts, since the perfect of ordinary passives is formed periphrastically with the perfect participle, which is formed on the same stem as the supine. Some examples coming from all conjugations are:
Deponent verbs use active conjugations for tenses that do not exist in the passive: the gerund, the supine, the present and future participles and the future infinitive. They cannot be used in the passive themselves (except the gerundive), and their analogues with "active" form do not in fact exist: one cannot directly translate "The word is said" with any form of loquī, and there are no forms like loquō, loquis, loquit, etc.
Semi-deponent verbs form their imperfective aspect tenses in the manner of ordinary active verbs; but their perfect tenses are built periphrastically like deponents and ordinary passives; thus, semi-deponent verbs have a perfect active participle instead of a perfect passive participle. An example:
Unlike the proper passive of active verbs, which is always intransitive, some deponent verbs are transitive, which means that they can take an object. For example:
Note: In the Romance languages, which lack deponent or passive verb forms, the Classical Latin deponent verbs either disappeared (being replaced with non-deponent verbs of a similar meaning) or changed to a non-deponent form. For example, in Spanish and Italian, mīrārī changed to mirar(e) by changing all the verb forms to the previously nonexistent "active form", and audeō changed to osar(e) by taking the participle ausus and making an -ar(e) verb out of it (note that au went to o).
Defective verbs are verbs that are conjugated in only some instances.
The following are conjugated irregularly:
| Conjugation of aiō | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Indicative present | Indicative imperfect | Subjunctive present | Imperative present | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | ||
| First person | aiō | — | aiēbam | aiēbāmus | — | — | — | |
| Second person | ais | aiēbās | aiēbātis | aiās | ai | |||
| Third person | ait | aiunt | aiēbat | aiēbant | aiat | aiant | — | |
| Conjugation of inquam | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present indicative | Future indicative | Perfect indicative | Imperfect indicative | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Singular | Singular | ||||
| First person | inquam | inquimus | — | inquiī | — | |||
| Second person | inquis | inquitis | inquiēs | inquistī | ||||
| Third person | inquit | inquiunt | inquiet | inquit | inquiēbat | |||
| Conjugation of for | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present indicative | Future indicative | Perfect indicative | Pluperfect indicative | Present imperative | ||||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Singular | Singular | Singular | Plural | ||||
| First person | for | — | fābor | fātus sum | fātus eram | — | — | |||
| Second person | — | — | — | — | fāre | fāminī | ||||
| Third person | fātur | fantur | fābitur | — | — | |||||
The Romance languages lost many of these verbs, but others (such as ōdī) survived but became regular fully conjugated verbs (in Italian, odiare).
Impersonal verbs are those lacking a person. In English impersonal verbs are usually used with the neuter pronoun "it" (as in "It seems," or "it is raining"). Latin uses the third person singular. These verbs lack a fourth principal part. A few examples are:
The future active participle is normally formed by removing the –um from the supine, and adding a –ūrus. However, some deviations occur.
| Present active infinitive | Supine | Future active participle | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| iuvāre | iūtum | iuvātūrus | going to help |
| lavāre/lavere | lavātum (but PPP lautus) | lavātūrus | going to wash |
| parere | partum | paritūrus | going to produce |
| ruere | rutum | ruitūrus | going to fall |
| secāre | sectum | secātūrus | going to cut |
| fruī | frūctum/fruitum | fruitūrus | going to enjoy |
| nāscī | nātum | nātūrus/nascitūrus | going to be born |
| morī | mortuum | moritūrus | going to die |
| orīrī | ortum | oritūrus | going to rise |
Several verb forms may occur in alternative forms (in some authors these forms are fairly common, if not more common than the canonical ones):
Like in most Romance languages, syncopated forms and contractions are present in Latin. They may occur in the following instances:
Infinitive is a linguistics term for certain verb forms existing in many languages, most often used as non-finite verbs. As with many linguistic concepts, there is not a single definition applicable to all languages. The name is derived from Late Latin [modus] infinitivus, a derivative of infinitus meaning "unlimited".
In linguistics, a participle is a nonfinite verb form that has some of the characteristics and functions of both verbs and adjectives. More narrowly, participle has been defined as "a word derived from a verb and used as an adjective, as in a laughing face".
In linguistics, a defective verb is a verb that either lacks a conjugated form or entails incomplete conjugation, and thus cannot be conjugated for certain grammatical tenses, aspects, persons, genders, or moods that the majority of verbs or a "normal" or regular verb in a particular language can be conjugated for. That is to say, a defective verb lacks forms that most verbs in a particular language have.
In Portuguese grammar, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and articles are moderately inflected: there are two genders and two numbers. The case system of the ancestor language, Latin, has been lost, but personal pronouns are still declined with three main types of forms: subject, object of verb, and object of preposition. Most nouns and many adjectives can take diminutive or augmentative derivational suffixes, and most adjectives can take a so-called "superlative" derivational suffix. Adjectives usually follow their respective nouns.
This article describes the conjugation and use of verbs in Slovene. Further information about the grammar of the Slovene language can be found in the article Slovene grammar.
In language learning, the principal parts of a verb are those forms that a student must memorize in order to be able to conjugate the verb through all its forms. The concept originates in the humanist Latin schools, where students learned verbs by chanting them in the four key forms from which all other forms can be deduced, for example:
A nonfinite verb, in contrast to a finite verb, is a form of a verb that lacks inflection (conjugation) for number or person. In the English language, a nonfinite verb cannot perform action as the main verb of an independent clause. In English, nonfinite verb forms include infinitives, participles and gerunds. Nonfinite verb forms in some other languages include converbs, gerundives and supines. The categories of mood, tense, and or voice may be absent from non-finite verb forms in some languages.
In French grammar, verbs are a part of speech. Each verb lexeme has a collection of finite and non-finite forms in its conjugation scheme.
Conjugation is the variation in the endings of verbs (inflections) depending on the person, tense and mood. Most French verbs are regular and their inflections can be entirely determined by their infinitive form. If not regular, a verb may incur changes its stem, changes in the endings or spelling adjustments for the sake of keeping correct pronunciation.
Indirect speech, also known as reported speech, indirect discourse (US), or ōrātiō oblīqua, is the practice, common in all Latin historical writers, of reporting spoken or written words indirectly, using different grammatical forms. Passages of indirect speech can extend from a single phrase to an entire paragraph, and this style was generally preferred by Roman historians to the direct speech commonly found in Greek authors.
In Hebrew, verbs, which take the form of derived stems, are conjugated to reflect their tense and mood, as well as to agree with their subjects in gender, number, and person. Each verb has an inherent voice, though a verb in one voice typically has counterparts in other voices. This article deals mostly with Modern Hebrew, but to some extent, the information shown here applies to Biblical Hebrew as well.
Sanskrit has inherited from its parent, the Proto-Indo-European language, an elaborate system of verbal morphology, much of which has been preserved in Sanskrit as a whole, unlike in other kindred languages, such as Ancient Greek or Latin. Sanskrit verbs thus have an inflection system for different combinations of tense, aspect, mood, voice, number, and person. Non-finite forms such as participles are also extensively used.
Romance verbs are the most inflected part of speech in the language family. In the transition from Latin to the Romance languages, verbs went through many phonological, syntactic, and semantic changes. Most of the distinctions present in classical Latin continued to be made, but synthetic forms were often replaced with more analytic ones. Other verb forms changed meaning, and new forms also appeared.
This article discusses the conjugation of verbs in a number of varieties of Catalan-Valencian, including Old Catalan. Each verbal form is accompanied by its phonetic transcription. Widely used dialectal forms are included, even if they are not considered standard in either of the written norms: those of the Institut d'Estudis Catalans and the Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua. Other dialectal forms exist, including those characteristic of minor dialects such as Ribagorçan and Algherese and transitional forms of major dialects.
Portuguese verbs display a high degree of inflection. A typical regular verb has over fifty different forms, expressing up to six different grammatical tenses and three moods. Two forms are peculiar to Portuguese within the Romance languages:
Latin syntax is the part of Latin grammar that covers such matters as word order, the use of cases, tenses and moods, and the construction of simple and compound sentences, also known as periods.
The main Latin tenses can be divided into two groups: the present system, consisting of the present, future, and imperfect; and the perfect system, consisting of the perfect, future perfect, and pluperfect.
The conjugation of Sardinian verbs are mainly divided according to infinitives into -are, -ere, and -ire verbs in north-central dialects for regular verbs, similar to the tripartite systems of Portuguese, Spanish, and Italian. In southern dialects, these infinitives above change to -ai, -i, and -iri, respectively. Irregular verbs also exist as well. Many Sardinian conjugated forms were similar and conservative phonologically to Classical Latin, although the number of tenses were greatly reduced and the remaining tenses rely on periphrasis.
In Latin, there are multiple periphrases for tense and mode. Here we list the most common.
