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Japanese conjugation, like the conjugation of verbs of many other languages, allows verbs to be morphologically modified to change their meaning or grammatical function. In Japanese, the beginning of a word (the stem) is preserved during conjugation, while the ending of the word is altered in some way to change the meaning (this is the inflectional suffix). Japanese verb conjugations are independent of person, number and gender (they do not depend on whether the subject is I, you, he, she, we, etc.); the conjugated forms can express meanings such as negation, present and past tense, volition, passive voice, causation, imperative and conditional mood, and ability. There are also special forms for conjunction with other verbs, and for combination with particles for additional meanings.
Japanese verbs have agglutinating properties: some of the conjugated forms are themselves conjugable verbs (or i-adjectives), which can result in several suffixes being strung together in a single verb form to express a combination of meanings.
A revision sheet visually summarizing the conjugations and uses described below
For Japanese verbs, the verb stem remains invariant among all conjugations. However, conjugation patterns vary according to a verb's category. For example, 知る (shiru) and 着る (kiru) belong to different verb categories (godan and ichidan, respectively) and therefore follow different conjugation patterns. As such, knowing a verb's category is essential for conjugating Japanese verbs.
Japanese verbs can be allocated into three categories:[1]
Godan verbs (五段動詞, godan-dōshi; literally: "five‑row verbs"), also known as "pentagrade verbs"
Ichidan verbs (一段動詞, ichidan-dōshi; literally: "one‑row verbs"), also known as "monograde verbs"
Irregular verbs, most notably: する (suru, to do) and 来る (kuru, to come)
Verbs are conjugated from their "dictionary form", where the final kana is either removed or changed in some way.[1] From a technical standpoint, verbs usually require a specific conjugational stem (see § Verb bases, below) for any given inflection or suffix. With godan verbs, the conjugational stem can span all five columns of the gojūon kana table (hence, the classification as a pentagrade verb). Ichidan verbs are simpler to conjugate: the final kana, which is always る (ru), is simply removed or replaced with the appropriate inflectional suffix. This means ichidan verb stems, in themselves, are valid conjugational stems which always end with the same kana (hence, the classification as a monograde verb).
This distinction can be observed by comparing conjugations of the two verb types, within the context of the gojūon table.[2]
*These forms are given here in hiragana for illustrative purposes; they would normally be written with kanji as 見ない, 見ます etc.
As can be seen above, the godan verb yomu (読む, to read) has a static verb stem, yo- (読〜), and a dynamic conjugational stem which changes depending on the purpose: yoma- (読ま〜; row 1), yomi- (読み〜; row 2), yomu (読む; row 3), yome- (読め〜; row 4) and yomo- (読も〜; row 5). Unlike godan verb stems, ichidan verb stems are also functional conjugational stems, with the final kana of the stem remaining static in all conjugations.
Verb bases
Conjugable words (verbs, i‑adjectives, and na‑adjectives) are traditionally considered to have six possible conjugational stems or bases (活用形, katsuyōkei; literally "conjugation forms") .[3] However, as a result of the language evolving,[4][5]historical sound shifts,[6][7] and the post‑WWII spelling reforms,[8] three additional sub‑bases have emerged for verbs (seen in the table below as the Potential, Tentative, and Euphonic bases). Meanwhile, verbs no longer differentiate between the conclusive form (終止形, shūshikei; used to terminate a predicate) and the attributive form (連体形, rentaikei; used to modify a noun or noun phrase) bases (these bases are only distinguished for na‑adjectives in the modern language, see Japanese adjectives).[9][10] Verb bases function as the necessary stem forms to which inflectional suffixes attach.
The "default" dictionary form, or lemma, of any conjugational morpheme, be it a verb, an adjective or an auxiliary, is its conclusive form, which is listed first in the table below. The verb group (godan, ichidan, or irregular) determines how to derive any given conjugation base for the verb. With godan verbs, the base is derived by shifting the final kana along the respective vowel row of the gojūon kana table. With ichidan verbs, the base is derived by removing or replacing the final ru (る) kana.[2]
The table below illustrates the various verb bases across the verb groups, with the patterns starting from the dictionary form.[11]
Of the nine verb bases, the shūshikei/rentaikei, meireikei, and ren'yōkei bases can be considered fully conjugated forms without needing to append inflectional suffixes. In particular, the shūshikei/rentaikei and meireikei bases do not conjugate with any inflectional suffixes. By contrast, a verb cannot be considered fully conjugated in its kateikei, mizenkei, ishikei, kanōkei, or onbinkei base alone; a compatible inflectional suffix is required for that verb construction to be grammatical.[32]
Certain inflectional suffixes, in themselves, take on the form of verbs or i‑adjectives. These suffixes can then be further conjugated by adopting one of the verb bases, followed by the attachment of the appropriate suffix. The agglutinative nature of Japanese verb conjugation can thus make the final form of a given verb conjugation quite long. For example, the word 食べさせられたくなかった (tabesaseraretakunakatta) is broken down into its component morphemes below:
食べさせられたくなかった (tabesaseraretakunakatta, "did not want to be made to eat")
食べ (tabe)
させ (sase)
られ (rare)
たく (taku)
なかっ (naka'-)
た (ta)
Mizenkei base of 食べる (taberu)
Mizenkei base of the させる (saseru) causative suffix
Ren'yōkei base of the られる (rareru) passive suffix
Ren'yōkei base of the たい (tai) desiderative suffix
Past‑tense ren'yōkei base of the ない (nai) negation suffix
There are three modern verb base forms that are considered to be derived from older forms. These are the potential, volitional, and euphonic sub‑bases, as shown in the Verb base formation table above.
As with all languages, the Japanese language has evolved to fulfil the contemporary needs of communication. The potential form of verbs is one such example. In Old Japanese and Early Middle Japanese, potential was expressed with the verb ending ゆ(yu), which was also used to express the passive voice ("to be done") and the spontaneous voice ("something happens on its own"). This evolved into the modern passive ending （ら）れる (-(ra)reru), which can similarly express potential and spontaneous senses. As usage patterns changed over time, different kinds of potential constructions emerged, such as the grammatical pattern of the rentaikei base + -koto ga dekiru (〜ことができる), and also via the kanōkei base.[4] The historical development of the kanōkei base is disputed, however the consensus is that it stemmed from a shift wherein transitive verbs developed an intransitive sense similar to the spontaneous, passive, and potential, and these intransitive forms conjugated in the 下二段活用 (shimo nidan katsuyō, lower bigrade conjugation pattern) of the Classical Japanese of the time.[5] The lower bigrade conjugation pattern evolved into the modern ichidan pattern in modern Japanese, and these stems for godan verbs have the same form as the hypothetical stems in the table above.
The mizenkei base that ends with -a was also used to express the volitional mood for yodan verbs (四段動詞, yodan-dōshi; "Class‑4 verbs") in Old Japanese and Middle Japanese,[disambiguation needed] in combination with volitional suffix む (-mu). Sound changes caused the resulting -amu ending to change: /-amu/ → /-ãu/ → /-au/ (like English "ow") → /-ɔː/ (like English "aw") → /-oː/. The post‑WWII spelling reforms updated spellings to reflect this and other sound changes, resulting in the addition of the ishikei or volitional base, ending with -o, for the volitional mood of yodan verbs. This also resulted in a reclassification of "yodan verbs" to "godan verbs" (五段動詞, godan-dōshi; "Class‑5 verbs").[8][33]
The ren'yōkei base also underwent various euphonic changes specific to the perfective and conjunctive (te) forms for certain verb stems,[34][6][7] giving rise to the onbinkei or euphonic base.[35] In the onbinkei base, the inflectional suffixes for godan verbs vary according to the last kana of the verb's ren'yōkei base.[2]
The bases of suru
Unlike most verbs, suru and its derived compounds exhibit strong irregularity in their verb bases. In some cases, some variants are preferred over the others, and such preferences vary among speakers. Roughly speaking, there are three major groups that behave similarly:[36]
Group A: Suru itself and compounds of it and free nouns (which are usually, but not always, spelt with two more kanji if Sino-Japanese): jikkō suru (実行する; 'practise'), toku suru (得する; 'gain'), son suru (損する; 'lose'), bikkuri suru (吃驚する; 'be startled'), janpu suru (ジャンプする; 'jump'), etc.
Group B: Compounds with bound Sino-Japanese morphemes that behave more like godan verbs. These often have full-fledged, interchangeable godan derivatives: aisu(ru) (愛す(る); 'love'), zokusu(ru) (属す(る); 'belong'), tassu(ru) (達す(る); 'reach'), etc.
Such a form as aisenu (愛せぬ) is supposed to be the classical Japanese equivalent to aisanai (愛さない). Compare the following translations of 1 John 3:14 ("[...] Anyone who does not love remains in death."[37]):
1917 classical: [...] aisenu mono wa shi no uchi ni oru. ([...]愛せぬ者は死のうちに居る。)[38]
1955 modern: [...] Aisanai mono wa, shi no uchi ni todomatte iru. ([...]愛さない者は、死のうちにとどまっている。)[39]
However, aisenu ("not love") as the negative of aisu(ru) ("love") would likely be confused with aisenu ("cannot love") as the negative of the potentialaiseru ("can love") in modern Japanese. It is clear that aisenu is not the same as aisanu where they both occur in close proximity: Wa ga ko o aisanu mono wa arimasen. Wa ga ko sae aisenu mono ga, dō shite goshukun o aisemashō. (わが子を愛さぬ者はありません。わが子さえ愛せぬ者が、どうしてご主君を愛せましょう。; transl.No man does not love his own son. If he is not capable of loving even his own son, in what way could he ever love his lord?).[40]
There is great variety among Group-B verbs as to whether to choose between the godan-negative -san(u)/-zu and the classical-negative -sen(u)/-zu, and there are indeed cases where only contexts can clarify whether -sen(u)/-zu are truly classical-negative, or actually godan-negative-potential. In general, it seems that if the Sino-Japanese stem contains a moraic obstruent as in kussuru (屈する; くっする, /kɯQsɯɾɯ/), a moraic nasal as in hansuru (反する; はんする, /haNsuru/), or lengthening mora as in kyōsuru (供する; きょうする, /kjoRsɯɾɯ/), the godan options are less preferable with all auxiliaries (including the negative -n(u)/-zu), though not impossible. Thus, such forms as kussenu/kussezu (屈せぬ・屈せず; 'not bend') are more likely to be classical-negative, while such forms as aisenu/aisezu (愛せぬ・愛せず; 'cannot love') are more likely to be godan-negative-potential; and while both kussanu/kussazu (屈さぬ・屈さず; 'not bend') and aisanu/aisazu (愛さぬ・愛さず; 'not love') are unambiguously godan-negative, the former are not as likely as the latter.[36]
Group C: Compounds with bound Sino-Japanese morphmes that behave more like upper (i-stemmed) ichidan verbs. These often have full-fledged, interchangeable upper ichidan derivatives: ronzuru → ronjiru (論ずる→論じる; 'discuss'), ōzuru → ōjiru (応ずる→応じる; 'respond'), omonzuru → omonjiru (重んずる→重んじる; 'appreciate'), sassuru → sasshiru (察する→察しる; 'surmise'), etc.
Group D: Compounds with bound Sino-Japanese morphemes that behave more like lower (e-stemmed) ichidan verbs. These may have full-fledged, interchangeable lower ichidan derivatives: shinzuru → shinzeru (進ずる→進ぜる; 'provide') and misuru → miseru (魅する→魅せる; 'enchant').
Across the following forms of suru within standard Japanese, an eastern dialect, while there is a dominance of the eastern vowel i as in shinai,[41]shiyō[42] and shiro,[43] the once prestigious western vowel e, as in sen(u) and seyo, still has currency especially in formal or literary Japanese. Such variants as senai and sanai (both of shinai); shin(u) (of sen(u)); shō (← seu), seyō and sō (all of shiyō); sero (of shiro); and shiyo, sē and sei (all of seyo), remain dialectal or obsolete.[44][45][46]
The copula or "to be" verb in Japanese is a special case. This comes in two basic forms, だ (da) in the plain form and です (desu) in the polite form. These are generally used to predicate sentences, equate one thing with another (i.e. "A is B."), or express a self‑directed thought (e.g. a sudden emotion or realization).[48]
Copula example sentences
English
Japanese
Function
It is a book.
本です (hon desu)
predicate
The weather was awful.
天気が大変でした (tenki ga taihen deshita)
copula, A is B
Ah! A cockroach!
わっ！ゴキブリだ！ (wa! gokiburi da!)
self‑directed
Copulae: Conjugation table
The copulae of Japanese demonstrate suppletion, in that they combined different forms from different words into one word. The original copulae were all based on the verb ari (あり; 'to exist'), which evolved into the modern aru (ある). It needed to be preceded by one of the three particles, ni, ni te → de[49][50] and to, which yielded three variants, ni ari/ni aru → nari/naru,[51]de ari/de aru → da[52] and to ari/to aru → tari/taru, the last of which fell out of use, but did phonetically coincide with te ari/te aru → tari/taru,[53] which in turn evolved into the modern past auxiliary ta.[54] It also combined with adjectival roots to expand their conjugation, for example akaku arō → akakarō (赤かろう), akaku atta → akakatta (赤かった), etc.
The original conclusive de ari, was replaced by the attributive de aru, which evolved into the informal conclusive da, and the formal conclusive de aru. In terms of formality and politeness:
Da is informal and impolite. Depending on specifically what precedes it, da can be perceived as abrupt or too masculine, and therefore is customarily omitted in some cases.[55]
De aru is formal and nonpolite (with no inherent assumption of politeness).
Desu is nonformal (with no inherent assumption of formality) and polite.
De arimasu is formal and polite.
Da/datta/darō are the colloquial contractions of de aru/de atta/de arō in eastern dialects (including Tokyo Japanese). Their western equivalents include ja/jatta/jarō and ya/yatta/yarō.[56]Ja/jatta/jarō, along with other western features (-n(u), -nanda, u-onbin, etc), are occasionally used in faux-archaic speech[57] rather dialectal speech; for example, the character Gandalf, an ancient wizard from The Lord of the Rings, is made to speak with a few selectively chosen western features,[i] while still retaining some eastern features,[j] in the Japanese translations (see relevant quotations in the footnotes).
Gozaru (御座る; contracted from goza aru) is the honorific version of aru, and goza(r)imasu is the honorific version of arimasu. Gozaru has most of the forms that aru does ((de (wa)) gozaru, (de (wa)) gozaranu, (de (wa)) gozareba, etc), although it additionally undergoes a minor sound change in the polite conclusive/attributive gozarimasu → gozaimasu and the imperative gozare → gozai. Gozaimasu is authentically used in modern Japanese, while gozaru, gozarimasu(ru) and gozaimasuru are used for effect, such as in theatrical or humorous lines.[58]
The current attributive form of de (wa) aru is still de (wa) aru. Da additionally takes naru → na (of said nari) as its attributive form[59] only in adjectival verbs,[60] as in kirei na hana (綺麗な花; 'pretty flower', lit.'a flower, which is pretty'), and after the auxiliaries sō (そう), yō (よう) and mitai (みたい), as in rikō sō na kao (利口そうな顔; 'smart-looking face', lit.'a face, which appears smart') and kanojo no yō na hito (彼女のような人; 'someone like her', lit.'a person, who is like her'); while the particle no is used after nouns, as in tomodachi no Yūko (友達の裕子; 'my friend Yūko', lit.'Yūko, who is my friend') or bijin no onēsan (美人のお姉さん; 'my beautiful sister', lit.'my sister, who is a beauty'). However, since no also expresses possession, this may cause ambiguity, as in isha no ojisan (医者のおじさん; lit.'my uncle, who is a doctor; my doctor's uncle');[61] moreover, some nouns can function as either "adjectival verbs" or "nouns", and take either na or no, such as iroiro na mono/iroiro no mono (色々な物・色々の物; 'various things'). The old naru (of said nari) and taru (of said to ari/to aru → tari/taru) can still be used for literary effect, as in zetsudai naru gokitai (絶大なるご期待; 'the utmost anticipation'), Hokkaidō naru chihō (北海道なる地方; 'Hokkaido region'), isha taru hito (医者たる人; 'a person, who is known as a doctor'), kyōshi taru mono (教師たるもの; 'those who call themselves teachers'), or in such idiom as sei naru (聖なる; 'holy') or dōdō taru (堂々たる; 'splendid').[60] Incidentally, an ancient possessive na was fossilized in words like manako (眼; 'eyeball', lit.'eye's child'), minato (港; 'harbor', lit.'water's door'), tanagokoro (掌; 'palm', lit.'hand's heart'), etc.[62] There is also a niche distinction between Kōbe no hito (神戸の人; 'person from Kobe', lit.'Kobe's person') and Kōbe na hito (神戸な人; 'person seeming like they could be from Kobe', lit.'Kobe-ish person').[63]Na is also used before the nominalizer no, as in sobo wa hyakusai na no da (祖母は100歳なのだ; lit.'it's a fact that my grandma is 100 years old').
The three conjunctive forms (two of which are particles) combine with different words,[64][65][21] each with its own parallel:
ni + naru → ni naru ("become"), parallel with akaku + naru → akaku naru ("become red")
de + aru → de aru ("be"), parallel with akaku + aru → akaku aru ("be red") and nomi + suru → nomi suru ("drink")
de + nai → de nai ("not be"), parallel with akaku + nai → akaku nai ("not be red") and nomi + shinai → nomi shinai ("not drink")
de ari + -masu → de arimasu ("be"),[k] parallel with nomi + -masu → nomimasu ("drink")
The above formations allow "splitting",[66] or adding particles like wa or mo between the conjunctive forms and the following verbs, which would be impossible with da ("be"), akai ("be red") and nomu ("drink") alone:
da ("be"), parallel with akai ("be red") and nomu ("drink")
ni mo naru ("become ..., too"), parallel with akaku mo naru ("become red, too")
de wa aru ("be ..., indeed"), parallel with akaku wa aru ("be red, indeed") and nomi wa suru ("drink, indeed")
de wa nai ("not be ..., indeed"), parallel with akaku wa nai ("not be red, indeed") and nomi wa shinai ("not drink, indeed")
The particles wa and mo are often added, especially to the negatives, although not required in principle.[49][67]Wa puts focus on what goes after it, while mo puts focus what goes before it.[68] In the following sentences, the focused information is underlined for the Japanese originals and the literal English translations; for the non-literal English translations, all-caps type emulates how an English speaker would emphasize the focused information.
Kono hen ga shizuka da. (この辺が静かだ。; lit.'This area[, not any other area,] is quiet.', transl.THIS area is quiet.)
Kono hen mo shizuka da. (この辺も静かだ。; lit.'This area, too, [along with at least another area,] is quiet.', transl.THIS area's also quiet.)
Kono hen wa shizuka da. (この辺は静かだ。; lit.'This area? It's quiet.', transl.This area's QUIET.)
Kono hen wa shizuka de wa aru ga, fuben da. (この辺は静かではあるが、不便だ。; lit.'This area? Being quiet? It is indeed, but it's inconvenient.', transl.This area IS quiet, but it's inconvenient)
Sometimes de and aru can be split quite widely:[69]
Ikuji nashi! Soshite mattaku sono tōri de watashi wa atta no da. (意氣地なし！ そして全くその通りで私はあつたのだ。[70]; transl.A wuss! I WAS exactly just that.)
While de nai/arimasen are sometimes used in formal contexts, in ordinary speech ja nai/ja arimasen are used instead. In this case, even though ja is etymologically a colloquially reduced version of de wa,[10]ja nai/arimasen are, functionally, colloquial versions of either de nai/arimasen, which focus on what comes before them, or de wa nai/arimasen which focus on nai/arimasen. Some speakers distinguish the short ja (じゃ) for de and the long jā (じゃあ) for de wa.[71]
Marukusu to Renin no shinja de nai desu ka /~ ja arimasen ka (マルクスとレニンの信者でないですか・～じゃありませんか; lit.'Are they not believers in Marx and Lenin?', transl.Aren't they BELIEVERS in Marx and Lenin?)
Marukusu to Renin no shinja de wa nai desu ka /~ ja(a) arimasen ka (マルクスとレニンの信者ではないですか・～じゃ(あ)ありませんか; lit.'Believers in Marx and Lenin? Is that not what they are?', transl.Are they NOT believers in Marx and Lenin?)
While de (wa) arimasen and de (wa) arimasen deshita are often recommended, de (wa) nai desu and de (wa) nakatta desu are acceptable colloquial alternatives.[72] For the idiosyncratic de (wa) aranai and de (wa) arimashinai, see #Negative: Conjugation table.
De (wa) areba is the regular way of forming conditionals (仮定形, kateikei) in modern Japanese. Naraba (of said nari) is kept as the conditional of da, and along with taraba (of said te ari/te aru → tari/taru → ta), retains the old way of forming conditionals. See #Conditional: Conjugation table or more.
Desu, a copula of uncertain origin, takes its missing forms from de (wa) aru and de (wa) arimasu, the latter of which is conceivably the ancestor of desu.[73]
Although なら(ば) (nara(ba)), だろう (darō) and でしょう (deshō) were originally conjugations of だ (da) and です (desu), they are now also used as particles or auxiliaries and can attach directly to other verbs' conclusive/attributive forms, as in kaku nara(ba) (書くなら(ば); 'if one writes'), kaku darō/deshō (書くだろう・でしょう; 'one will probably write'). Unlike da which is inherently blunt and only suitable for familiar speech, nara(ba) and darō are suitable for writing.[74]Desu (or de arimasu or de gozaimasu), deshita and deshō can add politeness the negative auxiliaries -n(u) and -nai, as well as adjectives:[75]
As shown above, desu does not have its own negative form, and instead borrows de (wa) arimasen from de (wa) arimasu. However, the auxiliary -n in de (wa) arimasen in turn does not have its own past and conjectural form, therefore deshita and deshō have to be added. The past conjectural -tarō is infrequent, thus instead of deshitarō, deshita deshō is preferred.[76]
de (wa) arimase (で(は)ありませ)[195] ja(a) arimase (じゃ(あ)ありませ)
Copulae: Grammatical compatibility
Derived from aru and arimasu, the copulae can have all the forms that these verbs are capable of having. Certain affirmative conclusive and attributive forms have contracted, especially in speech, such as de aru → da/ja and de arimasu → desu; the negative forms remain uncontracted, meaning there is no such form as *daran or *desen. Furthermore, the perfective forms, だった (datta) and でした (deshita), are compatible with the ~tara conditional.[196]
Imperfective
The imperfective form (also known as the "non‑past", "plain form", "short form", "dictionary form" and the "attributive form") is broadly equivalent to the present and future tenses of English. In Japanese, the imperfective form is used as the headword or lemma. It is used to express actions that are assumed to continue into the future, habits or future intentions.[197]
Imperfective form example sentences
English
Japanese
Function
(Do you eat sushi?) Yes, I eat sushi.
(寿司を食べる?) (sushi o taberu?) うん、寿司を食べる (un, sushi o taberu)
assumption to continue action
I go shopping every weekend.
毎週末買い物する (mai shūmatsu kaimono suru)
habit / reoccurring action
I will study tomorrow.
明日勉強する (ashita benkyō suru)
future intention
The imperfective form cannot be used to make a progressive continuous statement, such as in the English sentence "I am shopping". To do so, the verb must first be conjugated into its te form and attached to the いる (iru) auxiliary verb (see §te form: Grammatical compatibility, below).
Imperfective: Conjugation table
Certain ‑suru or ‑zuru verbs and their godan and ichidan equivalents are interchangeable (or at least sensitive to specifically what follows them) and even used in the same text, although it has been claimed that, at least for the conclusive/attributive form, the more classical/literary (文語, bungo)/western ‑zuru variants are more "formal" and "basically a written form",[198] compared to the more modern/colloquial (口語, kōgo)/eastern ‑jiru variants.[199] The ‑su variants are highly inconsistent across verbs, and even for highly "godan‑ized" verbs like aisuru (愛する), whose other forms are predominantly godan, the conclusive/attributive aisuru and conditionalaisureba in particular are still preferred to the fully godan variants aisu and aiseba.[36] In some cases it is not clear whether aisu is godan or actually pseudo-classical, for example in aisu beki (愛すべき) where all ‑suru verbs can optionally lose the ru. In classical or pseudo-classical literature, aisu is more likely to be conclusive and aisuru is more likely to be attributive or nominalized.
The politeness auxiliary ‑masuru is characterized as "pseudo-literary"[200] or faux archaic.[201] It was used in parliamentary speech during the 20th century, but usage drastically declined into the 21st century.[202] Some examples include Wakayama ni orimasuru haha (和歌山に居りまする母; 'my mother who is in Wakayama'), Taku e de mo maitte iru yō ni itasō ka to zonjimasuru no de gozaimasu (宅へでも参っているように痛そうかと存じまするのでございます; 'I am wondering whether I should decide to come and stay perhaps at your house'), Sore ni gisei no tame o omotte mimasuru to, geshuku ni okimasu no wa ikaga de gozaimashō (それに犠牲の為を思って見ますると、下宿に置きますのはいかがでございましょう; 'And thinking of the victims' welfare, how about putting them in a boarding house?'). The conjugational similarity between ‑masu and suru suggests an etymological link.[203]
The sound sequence /Vi/, with /V/ being a vowel, is often colloquially and masculinely fused into a long vowel. Since all adjectival conclusive/attributive forms have this sound sequence, they are liable to such fusion. Most adjectives of this kind remain distinctly masculine, and their phonetic spellings are found in written dialog for masculine characters in fiction, such as nai → nē (ねえ・ねー; 'nonexistent'), urusai → urusē → ussē (うるせえ・うるせー・うっせえ・うっせー; 'noisy; pesky'), hayai → ha(y)ē (はええ・はえー; 'quick'), sugoi → sugē (すげえ・すげー; 'superb'), tsuyoi → tsu(y)ē (つええ・つえー; 'strong'), warui → warī (わりい・わりー; 'bad'), yasui → yashī (やしい・やしー; 'easy; cheap'), mazui → majī (まじい・まじー; 'unpalatable'), atsui → achī (あちい・あちー; 'thick; hot'), kayui → kaī (かいい・かいー; 'itchy'), etc. Non-masculine examples include yoi → (y)ē → ī (いい・いー; 'good'),[204] and kawayui → kawaī (かわいい・かわいー; 'adorable'). See Japanese phonology §Vowel fusion for further citations.
The classical conclusives nashi and yoshi in particular are now more of cliches rather than catch-all representatives of adjectives in general. Nashi is often used as a nominal suffix meaning "without", "‑less" or "‑free", as in satō nashi no jōzai (砂糖なしの錠剤; 'sugar-free tablet'). Yoshi is often used as an interjection meaning "Good!" or "Alright!". The classical onaji has evolved into an adjectival noun (onaji da/de aru/desu, onaji (na), etc), and despite being originally conclusive, it is now prevalently attributive. Other examples of classical conclusives for cliched, proverbial and elevated uses include Tenki wa yoshi, kaze wa nashi, buratsuku no ni motte koi no hi da (天気はよし、風はなし、ぶらつくのに持ってこいの日だ; transl.The weather's nice, there's no wind, it's the perfect day to stroll), Genkin fuyō jidai, chikashi de aru (現金不要時代、まさに近しである; transl.The cashless era is nigh), Eyasuki mono wa ushinaiyasushi (得やすきものは失いやすし; transl.Easy come, easy go), Kyū kābu Jiko ōshi (急カーブ 事故多し; transl.Sudden curve: Many accidents),[205] etc.
The classical attributive ending ‑ki, the ancestor of the modern attributive/conclusive ending ‑i, is still used in elevated cliches and titles for books and fictional characters, such as jinkaku naki shadan (人格無き社団; 'unincorporated association'),[206]Osorenaki Tansasha, Akiri (恐れなき探査者、アキリ; 'Akiri, Fearless Voyager'),[207]furuki yoki jidai (古き良き時代; 'the good old days'),[206]yoki Samariya‑bito/‑jin / hitsujikai (善きサマリヤ人・羊飼い; 'the good Samaritan / shepherd'), Utsukushiku Aoki Donau (美しく青きドナウ; 'The Beautiful Blue Danube'), Aoki Me no Otome (青き眼の乙女; transl.Maiden with Eyes of Blue),[208]Akaki Ryū (赤き竜; transl.Crimson Dragon),[209]Atarashiki Mura (新しき村; lit.'New Village'), Imawashiki Tsurīfōku (忌まわしきツリーフォーク; 'Ambominable Treefolk'),[210] etc.
The attributive ending ‑karu, a fusion of the infinitive ending ‑ku and the verb aru, is uncommon in modern Tokyo Japanese. It has been found in such constructions with ‑beki as tanoshikaru beki (楽しかるべき; transl.that ought/is supposed to be joyful; that is otherwise happy).[211] In Kyushu, ‑karu was reduced further to ‑ka,[212] and yoka is used instead of either yoi or yoshi.[213][s]
The classical adjectival extenders beshi, gotoshi and maji are still used in elevated language. Their attributives retain the ‑ki ending as in beki, gotoki, majiki, although the ‑i ending as in bei, majii has historically and dialectally occurred.[214][215] For beshi in particular, its attributive beki can be used conclusively in the phrase beki da/de aru/desu. For more examples, see #Imperfective: Grammatical compatibility below.
The imperfective conclusive/attributive form can be followed by various extenders.[249]
Of these extenders, beshi, beki, beku, etc are capable of reviving classical conclusive forms such as the irregular su (す; 'do') and ku (来; 'come'), and the nidan (二段)u (得; 'get'), tabu (食ぶ; 'eat'), kazō (数ふ; 'count'), otsu (落つ; 'fall'), etc. These can be substituted with the modern irregular suru (する) and kuru (来る), and the ichidaneru (得る), taberu (食べる), kazoeru (数える), ochiru (落ちる), etc. With the classical irregular conclusive ari (あり; 'exist') and its derivatives, however, the attributive is used instead, as in aru beshi (あるべし; 'ought to be'), yokaru beshi (良かるべし; 'ought to be good'), etc rather than *ari beshi, *yokari beshi, etc, and such exceptions coincide with the modern godan conclusive aru of the same verbs.[250][251][204]
that something ought to, is supposed to, has necessarily to, or is possible to happen
Folks like those will surely go to hell.
さようの者どもは地獄に堕つべし (Sayō no monodomo wa jigoku ni otsu beshi)
a job that must be done
やるべき仕事(yaru beki shigoto)
I saw all I needed to see.
見るべきものは見た (Miru beki mono wa mita)
available heat
利用し得べき熱量 (riyō shiu beki netsuryō)
Word of its development had been passed from mouth to mouth, casting a gloom over the otherwise joyous family supper.
処刑の模様は口から口へと伝えられ、楽しかるべき家族の食卓を暗くしていた。[252] (Shokei no moyō wa kuchi kara kuchi e to tsutaerare, tanoshikaru beki kazoku no shokutaku o kuraku shite ita.)
[…] Nicholas, who […] had spent that otherwise joyful day in inactivity, felt as though his chest tightened even more.
[…]この楽しかるべき日を無為のうちにすごしてしまったニコライの胸は、なお一層締めつけられるような思いがした。[253] ([…] kono tanoshikaru beki hi o mui no uchi ni sugoshite shimatta Nikorai no mune wa, nao issō shimetsukerareru yō na omoi ga shita.)
Children ought to care for their parents.
子供は親を大切にす(る)べきだ (Kodomo wa oya o taisetsu ni su(ru) beki da)
You should teach your children what's wrong is wrong.
子供には悪いことは悪いと教えるべきだ (Kodomo ni wa warui koto wa warui to oshieru beki da)
“To be, or not to be, that is the question. […]”
「在るべきか、なかるべきか、それが問題だ。[…]」[89] (“Aru beki ka, nakaru beki ka, sore ga mondai da. […]”)
The party started the preparation necessary to take back power in the next election.
その党は次の選挙で政権を奪還す(る)べく準備を開始した (Sono tō wa tsugi no senkyo de seiken o dakkan su(ru) beku junbi o kaishi shita)
The imperative form functions as firm instructions do in English. It is used to give orders to subordinates (such as within military ranks, or towards pet animals) and to give direct instructions within intimate relationships (for example, within family or close friends). When directed towards a collective rather than an individual, the imperative form is used for mandatory action or motivational speech.[255] The imperative form is also used in reported speech.
Imperative form example sentences
English
Japanese
Function
"Class started! Sit down, you dogs!"
"Jugyō o hajimeru ze. Suware! Inudomo!" (「授業を始めるぜ。座れ！ 犬ども！」[256])
plain command
‘Fly, you fools!’ he cried, and was gone.
“Nigero, bakamonodomo!” to, kare wa sakende, mienaku narimashita. (「逃げろ、ばか者ども！」と、かれは叫んで、見えなくなりました。[257])
If you're strong, stay strong till the end! If you're weak, stay weak till the end!
Tsuyokereba, aku made mo tsuyoku are! Yowakereba, aku made mo yowaku are! (强ければ、あくまでも强くあれ！ 弱ければ、飽くまでも弱くあれ！[269])
[…] Be just! Be strong! Be good! Show strength!
[…] Tadashikare Tsuyokare Yokare Chikara are ([…]正しかれ 強かれ 善かれ 力あれ[270])
Sometimes in French as «Sois belle, sois triste», sometimes just as plain as “Be beautiful, be sad”.
Aru toki wa Furansu-go de, «Sois belle, Sois triste» to, ――mata aru toki wa onaji kotoba o “Utsukushikare, kanashikare” to.―― (或る時はフランス語で、〈Sois belle, Sois triste〉と、――又或る時は同じ言葉を「美しかれ、悲しかれ」と。――[271])
Let it rain‼ […] Rain, storm……‼ One more time………… Keep pouring for just one more time, please‼
Ame yo fure‼ […] Ame yo arashi yo……‼ Mō ichido………… Semete mō ichido furitsuzuite okure‼ (雨よ降れ‼[…]雨よ 嵐よ……‼もう一度…………せめてもう一度降り続いておくれ‼[272])
literary wish
God said, "Let there be a great void between the waters, let it separate water from water."
Kami wa iwareta. "Mizu no naka ni ōzora are. Mizu to mizu o wakeyo." (神は言われた。「水の中に大空あれ。水と水を分けよ。」[273])
Peace, peace be unto thee. Peace be unto those who help thee.
Heian are, anata ni heian are. Anata o tasukeru mono ni heian are. (平安あれ、あなたに平安あれ。 あなたを助ける者に平安あれ。[274])
A plaything let woman be, pure and fine like the precious stone, illumined with the virtues of a world not yet come.[275]
Josei wa omocha de are, kiyoku utsukushiku are. Mada sonzai shinai sekai no toku ni yotte terasareta hōseki ni hitoshiku are! (女性はおもちゃであれ、清く美しくあれ。まだ存在しない世界の徳によって照らされた宝石にひとしくあれ！[276])
May the victims' souls rest in eternal peace.
Giseisha no mitama yo, eikyū ni yasukare. (犠牲者の御霊よ、永久に安かれ。[277])
They were poised to form the Japan Federation of Managers' Associations, a national organization that would push employers' functions to the forefront with the slogan "Managers, be strong and just!", but […]
Karera wa "Keieisha yo, tsuyoku tadashikare!" to shiyōsha kinō o zenmen ni oshidashita zenkokuteki soshiki de aru Nippon Keieisha Dantai Renmei no kessei o kishite ita ga, […] (彼らは「経営者よ、強く正しかれ！」と使用者機能を前面に押し出した全国的組織である日本経営者団体連盟の結成を期していたが、[…][280])
She was told it was ladylike to be beautiful, so she dressed up.
Shukujo taru mono, utsukushiku are to iwarete kikazari. (淑女たるもの、美しくあれと言われて着飾り。[281])
quoted wish
It was a longstanding convention that women must be beautiful.
Onna yo, utsukushikare to no mukashi no hito no shikitari de atta. (女よ、美しかれとの昔の人のしきたりであつた。[282])
The Emperor is a key figure who spiritually ensures that our land and people be at peace.
Tennō wa, kuni yasukare, tami yasukare to inoru gosonzai desu. (天皇は、国安かれ、民安かれと祈る御存在です。[283])
It also means to wish your partner as well as you would wish yourself.
Mata, jibun o yokare to omou no to onaji ōkisa de aite o yokare to negau kokoro de aru. (また、自分を良かれと思うのと同じ大きさで相手を良かれと願う心である。[284])
The way of life of someone who has gone all the way through with anything, be it good or bad, is beautiful.
Yoi ni shiro, warui ni shiro, nani ka o kanryō shita ningen no ikikata wa, utsukushii. (善いにしろ、惡いにしろ、何かを完了した人間の活き方は、美しい。[269])
concession
Whether it's the "ability to not miss the moment nature smiles" or "serendipity", I'd say a state of heightened sensitivity when it happens is essential.
Kono "shizen ga hohoemu toki o minogasanai chikara" ni seyo, "serendipiti" ni seyo, sono toki no kansei ga takamatte iru to yū jōtai ga jūyō da to omotte imasu. (この「自然が微笑むときを見逃さない力」にせよ、「セレンディピティ」にせよ、その時の感性が高まっているという状態が重要だと思っています。[285])
in any event/case; anyway
izure ni shiro/seyo (いずれにしろ・せよ)
Obviously, you're free to pamper and dote on your own pet however you want to, whether it's a dog, a cat or any other animal.
Mochiron, inu de are neko de are sono ta no dōbutsu de are, jibun no petto o muyami yatara ni amayakashite kawaigaru no wa, sono hito no jiyū de aru. (もちろん、犬であれ猫であれその他の動物であれ、自分のペットをむやみやたらに甘やかしてかわいがるのは、その人の自由である。[286])
[…] knowing full well that whatever they are, be they the Vietnam War or a homicide, won’t just come flying out at you from that convex glass screen that is as warm as a hand warmer if you touch it a little bit, […]
[…] soshite Betonamu Sensō de gozare, hitogoroshi de gozare, ano chotto te o fureru to kairo hodo ni atsui totsumen garasu yori kochira e wa, zettai ni tobidashite kuru koto wa nai to shitte shimaeba, […] ([…]そしてベトナム戰爭でござれ、人殺しでござれ、あのちよつと手を觸れると懷爐ほどに熱い凸面ガラスよりこちらへは、絕對に飛び出してくることはないと知つてしまへば、[…][287])
His elder brothers leave their village with their circles for new settlements, be they far or near.
Anitachi wa nakamatachi to issho ni, tōkare chikakare, mura o hanarete arata na tochi de seikatsu o suru. (兄たちは仲間たちと一緒に，遠かれ近かれ，村を離れて新たな土地で生活をする。[288])
Come rain or wind, as Beethoven roamed the outskirts of Vienna without a care about the weather, […]
Ame yo fure, kaze mo fuke, Wīn no kōgai o, otenki kamawazu ni hōkō shita Bētōven wa, […] (雨よ降れ、風も吹け、ウィーンの郊外を、お天氣構はずに彷徨したベートーヴェンは、[…][289])
止まれ STOP signs in Japan use the imperative form of to stop (止まる) to command mandatory action.
However, the imperative form is perceived as confrontational or aggressive when used for commands; instead, it is more common to use the te form (with or without the please do (〜下さい, ‑kudasai) suffix), or the conjunctive form's polite imperative suffix, ‑nasai (〜なさい).[255]
Imperative: Conjugation table
The honorific godan verbs are originally おっしゃれ (osshare), 下され (kudasare), 為され (nasare), 御座れ (gozare), just like other godan/四段(yodan) verbs, though *いらっしゃれ (irasshare) was not found. These forms are obsolescent and only used for special effect, such as in advertisements.[290] Historically, honorific verbs were 二段 (nidan) rather than godan/yodan, and western imperative forms like いらせられよ (iraserareyo; → irasshai), 仰せられよ (ōserareyo; → osshai), 下されよ・下されい (kudasareyo/kudasarei; → kudasai), 為されよ (nasareyo; → nasai) are attested. From these nidan verbs, apart from the godan offshoots, there still exist ichidan equivalents. Some rural eastern dialects still have 為さろ (nasaro).[291][292]
With non-godan verbs, there are two imperative forms, one ending in ‑ro (〜ろ) and one in ‑yo (〜よ). ‑Ro has been characterized as used for speech, while ‑yo as used for writing.[293] In actuality, this corresponds to a difference between modern Japanese (口語, kōgo; lit.'oral language') based on the eastern Tokyo Japanese dialect,[aa] and Classical Japanese (文語, bungo; lit.'literary language'), various literary stages of premodern Japanese based on western dialects.[295][296][297] Both ‑ro and ‑yo were interjectional particles in Old Japanese,[298][ab][299][300] and were sometimes optional, sometimes obligatory with non-godan verbs. ‑Yo became obligatory with non-godan verbs toward Early Middle Japanese, and its reduced variant ‑i arose during Late Middle Japanese.[301][ac] Historically and dialectically, mi-yo/mi-i/mi-ro/mi (見よ・見い・見ろ・見; 'look!'), oki-yo/oki-i/oki-ro/oki (起きよ・起きい・起きろ・起き; 'get up!'), ke-yo/ke-i/ke-ro/ke (蹴よ・蹴い・蹴ろ・蹴; 'kick!'),[ad]ake-yo/ake-i/ake-ro/ake (開けよ・開けい・開けろ・開け; 'open!') (all ichidan), se-yo/shi-yo/se-i/shi-i/se-ro/shi-ro/se/shi (せよ・しよ・せい・しい・せろ・しろ・せ し; suru, 'do!') and ko-yo/ki-yo/ko-i/ki-i/ko-ro/ki-ro/ko/ki (来よ・来い・来ろ・来; kuru, 'come!') were all possible,[302][303][304] with ‑yo and ‑i being the western forms, and ‑ro being the eastern form.[305][306][307][308] The division between western ‑yo/‑i and eastern ‑ro still exists today.[309][310] According to a 1991 survey:
‑Re, likely as a shortened ‑ro‑i,[294] is found in the northernmost dialects in Hokkaido and the southernmost ones in Kyushu.
Shiro ("do!") dominates eastern dialects, while sē does western dialects. Seyo and shiyo concentrate in central Chūbu, while sero and sere do in western Kyushu.[43]
There exist such fused forms as myo(o) (← miyo, "look!"), okyo(o) (← okiyo, "rise!"), akyo(o) (← akeyo, "open!") and sho(o) (← seyo, "do!") in Shizuoka Prefecture and some surrounding areas.
Koi ("come!") occurs consistently across Japan, although kō has a strong presence in the east. There is a concentration of kē and ke in Kyushu. Koyo is rare in contemporary Japanese dialects,[314] despite being the standard form in classical Japanese. According to another account, koro occurs in an Akita dialect, while kiro is found in Ibaraki. Other variants include kiyo, kī, kui, keyo, etc.[300]
In some dialects, nero(o), okiro(o), akero(o), shiro(o), koro(o) are actually volitional forms, not imperative forms.[315][316][317][318]
In modern Tokyo Japanese (eastern, specifically Yamanote Japanese), ‑yo largely displaced ‑ro in non-imperative contexts. ‑Yo can be optionally added to modern imperative forms with no historical ‑yo, as in kake yo (書けよ; 'write!'), miro yo (見ろよ), shiro yo (しろよ), koi yo (来いよ); ‑ro can no longer be used this way, although historically it used to occasionally be, as with yodan imperatives like oke ro (置けろ; 'put!') or yome ro (読めろ; 'read!').[300] Although ‑yo imperative forms already contain ‑yo and are primarily "written", it is not impossible for them to be followed by another colloquial ‑yo, as in Kura o akeyo yo (倉を開けよよ; 'Open the storehouse, would you?')[319] or Mō neyo yo (もう寝よよ; 'Just sleep already, would you?').[320] Apart from the difference between eastern and western dialects, there exists a register difference ‑yo and ‑ro within standard Japanese.[308]‑Yo, as the more prestigious classical form of the former western capitals (Nara, Kyoto and Osaka), is still used in formal instructions, such as on test forms,[321] in academic questions,[322] on signage, in formal or polite quoted commands[294] or concessive clauses (spoken[323][324][325][326] or written[327][328][329]), etc. On the other hand, ‑ro, as the more colloquially common form, has a connotation of rudeness.[308][ae]
Despite originally having the same conjugation as suru,[330] the imperative form of ‑masu(ru) is not *‑mashiro. However, there used to be ‑masei, with ‑i being the western reduced form of ‑yo.[331]‑Mase yo exists, though not mandatorily like seyo, but only as ‑mase optionally followed by ‑yo. ‑Mashi is a later variant, characteristic of Shitamachi.[200] It used to be common during the Meiji era, but now has a connotation of unrefined speech. ‑Mase and ‑mashi are meant to be used with honorific verbs, as in irasshaimase (いらっしゃいませ), nasaimase (為さいませ), asobashimase (遊ばしませ), meshiagarimase (召し上がりませ), etc, and not with ordinary verbs like *kakimase (書きませ) or *arukimase (歩きませ).[201]
Are and de (wa) are have limited use in formal contexts, for example Kami mo shōran are (神も照覧あれ; 'may God be my witness'),[294]hikari are (光あれ; 'let there be light'), Ito takaki tokoro ni wa eikō, Kami ni are, chi ni wa heiwa, mikokoro ni kanau hito ni are. (いと高きところには栄光、神にあれ、地には平和、御心に適う人にあれ。; 'In the highest realm, glory be unto God, on earth, peace be unto those who earn his grace.'),[332]itsumo Kami ni shitagatte are. (いつも神に従ってあれ。; 'always be obedient to God.'),[333]shōjiki de are (正直であれ; 'be honest').[294]De (wa) are also has a concessive use, as in Riyū wa nan de are, bōryoku wa yoku nai yo. (理由は何であれ，暴力はよくないよ。; 'No matter the reason, violence is not good.'),[334]Nan no heya de are, mō koko ni tomete morau hoka wa nai (何の部屋であれ、もうここに泊めてもらうほかはない; 'Whatever the room may be, we have no choice but to stay here.').[335] This has been linked to a probable contraction from the identically sounding conditional base, de are, preceding the concessive particle ‑do, as in de aredo.[335] However, unambiguously imperative bases in ni seyo and ni shiro also have concessive uses, as in Sanka suru ni seyo, shinai ni seyo, toriaezu renraku o kudasai. (参加するにせよ，しないにせよ，とりあえず連絡を下さい。; 'Whether you partake or not, please get in touch soon.') and Soba ni shiro, udon ni shiro, menrui nara nan de mo ii n da. (そばにしろ，うどんにしろ，麺類なら何でもいいんだ。; 'Soba, udon, whatever, any kind of noodles will do.')[334]
Unlike are, adjectival imperative forms derived from fusions with it (‑ku are → ‑kare), seem to be used mostly for concession, as in ōkare sukunakare (多かれ少なかれ; 'be there more or less'), takakare yasukare (高かれ安かれ; 'be it expensive or cheap'), tsuyokare yowakare (強かれ弱かれ; 'be it strong or weak'), osokare hayakare (遅かれ早かれ; 'be it later or sooner'), yokare ashikare (良かれ悪しかれ; 'be it good or bad'),[336]tōkare chikakare (遠かれ近かれ; 'be it far or near'), etc and occasionally for elevated wishes, as in Yasukare (安かれ; transl.May you be at peace)[206][af] or Sachi ōkare (幸多かれ; transl.Best of luck to you).[338] The exceptional nakare ("let there not be") expresses elevated and/or motivational negative commands or wishes, as in Ogoru nakare! Jimintō (驕るなかれ！自民党; transl.Do not be prideful! O, Liberal Democratic Party), Taka ga benpi to yū nakare (高が便秘と言うなかれ; transl.Don't say it's just constipation), etc. The phrase koto nakare (事なかれ; lit.'let there be no incident') is used in koto nakare shugi (事なかれ主義; 'principle of not rocking the boat').[206]Nakare behaves syntactically like the negative imperative particle na, which is similarly placed after an attributive/conclusive verb, thus ogoru na (驕るな; 'don't be prideful'), yū na (言うな; 'don't say'), etc.[339] Unfused ‑ku are forms have also been found, as in kiyoku are (清くあれ; 'be pure!').[340]
The conditional form (also known as the "hypothetical form", "provisional form" and the "provisional conditional eba form") is broadly equivalent to the English conditionals "if..." or "when...". It describes a condition that provides a specific result, with emphasis on the condition.[397] The conditional form is used to describe hypothetical scenarios or general truths.[398]
Conditional form example sentences
English
Japanese
Function
If you see it, you'll understand.
見れば分かる (mireba wakaru)
hypothetical
When you multiply 3 by 4, it becomes 12.
3に4を掛ければ12になる (san ni yon o kakereba jūni ni naru)
general truths
Conditional: Conjugation table
The conditional form is created by using the kateikei base, followed by a conditional particle, usually the hypothetical/provisional ba (ば), and occasionally with the elevated concessive do (mo) (ど(も)).
The ‑eba ending can be colloquially reduced to ‑ya(a), where the consonant b is so weakened to the point complete omission, as in ieba → *iewa → iya(a) (言えば; 'provided that one says'), ikeba → *ikewa → ikya(a) (行けば; 'provided that one goes'), mireba → *mirewa → mirya(a) (見れば; 'provided that one looks'), etc. In cases like mateba → *matewa → matya(a) (待てば; 'provided that one waits'), hanaseba → *hanasewa → hanasya(a) (話せば; 'provided that one speaks'), etc, the consonants ty and sy may be used rather than ch and sh.[399] The adjectival ending ‑kereba → ‑kerya(a) in particular can be further reduced to ‑kya(a), as in akakereba → *akakerewa → akakerya(a) → akakya(a) (赤ければ; 'provided that one's red'). In western dialects where ‑n is used instead of ‑nai, there are ‑nkerya(a) and ‑nkya(a) (from ‑nkereba), and ‑nya (from ‑neba).[400] These colloquial reductions are analogous to how ‑te wa/‑de wa are reduced to ‑tya(a)/‑dya(a), ‑te aru/‑de aru/‑te yaru/‑de yaru to ‑ty(a)aru/‑dy(a)aru, de wa to dya(a) to ja(a), and de atte to dy(a)atte to j(a)atte, etc, although some of these reductions may be more dialectal than the others.[401]
In classical Japanese, there was a distinction between the provisionalizenkei (已然形) base, which expresses a prerequisite condition ("provided that one is/does"), and the hypotheticalmizenkei (未然形) base, which expresses a contingent condition ("if one happens to be/do"). Furthermore, when these constructions are used in perfect clauses, they express temporal conditions ("when/because one had been/done").[440] Modern Japanese replaced the classical hypothetical base with the classical perfect hypothetical (which is dubbed the conditional by Martin (2004:564–566) harvcoltxt error: no target: CITEREFMartin2004 (help)), although the classical hypothetical lingers on in cliched phrases. The only exception is nara(ba), which became provisional. In the following table, the examples are given for kaku (書く; 'write'), suru (する; 'do'), da/de aru (だ・である; 'be') and yoi (良い; 'be good').
The idiom tatoeba (例えば; lit.'if one happens to make a simile', 'for example') was the hypothetical form of the nidan verb tatō (例ふ; 'to make a simile').[441] The phrase sayō nara (左様なら; 'farewell') came from an archaic hypothetical phrase that literally meant "if it happens to be like that".[442][443][444]
Classical
Modern
Gloss
Without wa
With wa
Without wa
With wa
Prerequisite condition
Imperfect provisional
kakeba
kaki wa sureba
Imperfect provisional
kakeba kaku nara(ba)
kaki wa sureba
"provided that one writes"
kakaneba kakazareba
kaki wa seneba kaki wa sezareba
kakanakereba kakanai nara(ba)
kaki wa shinakereba
"provided that one doesn't write"
sureba
shi wa sureba
sureba suru nara(ba)
shi wa sureba
"provided that one does"
seneba sezareba
shi wa seneba shi wa sezareba
shinakereba shinai nara(ba)
shi wa shinakereba
"provided that one doesn't do"
nareba
ni wa areba
de areba (de aru) nara(ba)
de wa areba
"provided that one is"
naraneba narazareba
ni wa araneba ni wa arazareba
de nakereba de nai nara(ba)
de wa nakereba
"provided that one isn't"
yokereba
yoku wa areba
yokereba yoi nara(ba)
yoku wa areba
"provided that one is good"
yokarazareba
yoku wa arazareba
yoku nakereba yoku nai nara(ba)
yoku wa nakereba
"provided that one isn't good"
Contingent condition Imperfect temporal condition
Imperfect hypothetical
kakaba
kaki wa seba
Perfect hypothetical
kaitara(ba) kaita nara(ba)
kaki wa shitara(ba)
"if one happens to write" "when one writes"
kakazu(n)ba
kaki wa sezu(n)ba
kakanakattara(ba) kakanakatta nara(ba)
kaki wa shinakattara(ba)
"if one doesn't happen to write" "when one doesn't write"
seba
shi wa seba
shitara(ba) shita nara(ba)
shi wa shitara(ba)
"if one happens to do" "when one does"
sezu(n)ba
shi wa sezu(n)ba
shinakattara(ba) shinakatta nara(ba)
shi wa shinakattara(ba)
"if one doesn't happen to do" "when one doesn't do"
naraba
ni wa araba
de attara(ba) → dattara(ba) de atta nara(ba) → datta nara(ba)
de wa attara(ba)
"if one happens to be" "when one is"
narazu(n)ba
ni wa arazu(n)ba
de nakattara(ba) de nakatta nara(ba)
de wa nakattara(ba)
"if one doesn't happen to be" "when one isn't"
yokuba
yoku wa araba
yokattara(ba) yokatta nara(ba)
yoku wa attara(ba)
"if one happens to be good" "when one is good"
yokarazu(n)ba
yoku wa arazu(n)ba
yoku nakattara(ba) yoku nakatta nara(ba)
yoku wa nakattara(ba)
"if one doesn't happen to be good" "when one isn't good"
Perfect temporal condition
Perfect hypothetical
kakitaraba
kaki wa shitaraba
kaitara(ba) kaita nara(ba)
kaki wa shitara(ba)
"when one wrote"
kakazaritaraba
kaki wa sezaritaraba
kakanakattara(ba) kakanakatta nara(ba)
kaki wa shinakattara(ba)
"when one didn't write"
shitaraba
shi wa shitaraba
shitara(ba) shita nara(ba)
shi wa shitara(ba)
"when one did"
sezaritaraba
shi wa sezaritaraba
shinakattara(ba) shinakatta nara(ba)
shi wa shinakattara(ba)
"when one didn't do"
naritaraba
ni wa aritaraba
de attara(ba) → dattara(ba) de atta nara(ba) → datta nara(ba)
de wa attara(ba)
"when one was"
narazaritaraba
ni wa arazaritaraba
de nakattara(ba) de nakatta nara(ba)
de wa nakattara(ba)
"when one wasn't"
yokaritaraba
yoku wa aritaraba
yokattara(ba) yokatta nara(ba)
yoku wa attara(ba)
"when one was good"
yokarazaritaraba
yoku wa arazaritaraba
yoku nakattara(ba) yoku nakatta nara(ba)
yoku wa nakattara(ba)
"when one wasn't good"
Perfect provisional
kakitareba
kaki wa shitareba
"when one wrote"
kakazaritareba
kaki wa sezaritareba
"when one didn't write"
shitareba
shi wa shitareba
"when one did"
sezaritareba
shi wa sezaritareba
"when one didn't do"
naritareba
ni wa aritareba
"when one was"
narazaritareba
ni wa arazaritareba
"when one wasn't"
yokaritareba
yoku wa aritareba
"when one was good"
yokazaritareba
yoku wa arazaritareba
"when one wasn't good"
Conditional: Advanced usage
In its negative conjugation (〜なければ, -nakereba), the conditional form can express obligation or insistence by attaching to 〜ならない (-naranai, to not happen) or 〜なりません (-narimasen, to not happen (polite)). This pattern of grammar is a double negative which loosely translates to "to avoid that action, will not happen". Semantically cancelling out the negation becomes "to do that action, will happen"; however the true meaning is "I must do that action".[445][446]
Conditional form example sentences
English
Japanese
Function
I have to help.
手伝わなければならない (tetsudawanakereba naranai)
obligation
I must go to the dentist.
歯医者に行かなければならない (haisha ni ikanakereba naranai)
insistence
Your self‑introduction has to be in Japanese.
自己紹介は日本語でなければならないよ(jiko shoukai wa nihongo denakereba naranai yo)
obligation / insistence
Concessive
In earlier stages of Japanese, the particle -do (ど) was used in place of -ba (ば) for what is known as the concessive, which was used in premodern Edo Japanese.[447] In the modern paradigm, combinations of the gerund and the particle mo (も), or of the infinitive and the particle nagara (ながら), are preferred,[448][449] while the older concessive is used only in cliches or elevated writing.
Politeness stylization
The auxilaries desu and -masu, and the verb gozaru can be used to enhance politeness. In general, the more verbose forms with -masu and even gozaimasu are more polite.[450][451]
Desu substitutes de aru and da for more politeness. Desu adds politeness and expresses tense and affirmativity:
de aru / da → desu ("are")
Desu makes verbs and adjectives more polite. Desu only adds politeness:
akai → akai desu ("are red"), akaku nai → akaku nai desu ("aren't red")
Deshita substitutes de atta and datta for more politeness. Deshita adds politeness and expresses tense and affirmativity:
de atta / datta → deshita ("were")
Deshita makes past adjectives more polite. Deshita adds politeness and expresses tense and affirmativity:
akakatta → akai deshita ("were red")
-Masu makes nonpast affirmative verbs more polite. -Masu adds politeness and expresses tense and affirmativity:
kaku → kakimasu ("write")
aru → arimasu ("exist")
de aru / da → de arimasu ("are")
-Masen makes nonpast negative verbs more polite. -Masen adds politeness and expresses tense and negativity:
kakanai → kakimasen ("don't write")
nai → arimasen ("don't exist")
de nai → de arimasen ("aren't")
-Masen deshita makes past negative verbs more polite. -Masen adds politeness and expresses negativity, while deshita maintains politeness and expresses tense:
-Mashita makes past affirmative verbs more polite. -Mashita adds politeness and expresses tense and affirmativity:
kaita → kakimashita ("wrote")
atta → arimashita ("existed")
de atta / datta → de arimashita ("were")
Desu can further attach to -masu, -masen, -mashita for even more politeness, but such attachments have been characterized as, "excessively polite", "unrefined" or "ingratiating":[452][201]
Deshō makes nonpast affirmative tentative verbs, and past and nonpast tentative adjectives, more polite. The main verbs/adjectives express tense and affirmativity or negativity, while deshō adds politeness and expresses tentativity:
de aru de arō / de aru darō / de arō / darō → deshō / de arimasu deshō ("probably are")
de atta de arō / de atta darō / de attarō / datta darō / dattarō → de arimashita/atta deshō ("probably were")
de nai de arō / de nai darō / de nakarō → de arimasen/nai deshō ("probably aren't")
de nakatta de arō / de nakatta darō / de nakattarō → de nakatta deshō ("probably weren't")
-Masen deshita deshō makes past negative tentative verbs more polite. -Masen adds politeness and expresses negativity, deshita maintains politeness and expresses tense, while deshō maintains politeness and expresses tentativity:
de nakatta darō / de nakattarō → de arimasen deshita deshō ("probably weren't")
Deshitarō can substitute deshita deshō, and -mashitarō can substitute -mashita deshō, although both are uncommon.
-Mashō makes nonpast affirmative tentative/hortative verbs more polite. Whether the verb is tentative or hortative is contextual, but verbs with human agency tend to be hortative, and those without tend to be tentative. -Mashō adds politeness, and expresses tense, affirmativity and tentativity/hortativity:
kakō → kakimashō ("probably write; want to write; let's write")
kumorō → kumorimashō ("it's probably cloudy")
arō → arimashō ("probably exist")
de arō / darō → de arimashō ("probably are")
Gozaimasu substitutes or appends to -masu, arimasu and desu for even more politeness. Extra instances of desu, deshita and deshō can be added to make up for missing forms. The negative and past forms can be based on the original verb/adjective, or based on gozaimasu, or supplied with deshita:
de arimasen deshita / de nakatta desu → de gozaimasen deshita ("weren't"), de arimasen deshita deshō / de nakatta deshō → de gozaimasen deshita deshō ("probably weren't")
Past negatives based on the main verbs/adjectives:
In principle, desu, de arimasu and de gozaimasu can be mere politeness enhancers and can attach to anything, even in such cases as -masu desu, -mashita desu, -masu de gozaimasu[450] or (de) gozaimasu de gozaimasu.[453][454][455]
↑ When spelt in hiragana, the standard spelling is still いう, not *ゆう.[17][18] This convention, along with the particles wa (は), e (へ) and o (を), is retained from historical kana orthography for practical purposes. For yū (言う), the kana spelling いう is in keeping with other conjugational forms such as iwanai (いわない) and itta (いった). 言う (yū, 'say') is possibly homophonous with 結う (yuu → yū, 'fasten'),[19] except that the latter can be unaccented or accented, while the former is only unaccented.[20][21] In this article, the more phonetically accurate spelling ゆう is used in the conjugation tables below not to obscure phonetic changes between verb forms.
1 2 3 4 5 Unlike with yuwa, yū, yutte, yutta, whose statuses are certain, the statuses of yui, yue and especially yuō are dubious. It has been claimed that there are dialects where yui nagara, yueba and yue have occurred.[22][23]
↑ There are three mizenkei bases for the verb suru (する), depending on the resulting conjugated form: sa (さ) for passive and causative forms, shi (し) for the negative and volitional forms, and se (せ) for the negative continuous form.[24]
↑ The mizenkei base for verbs ending in ‑u (〜う) appears to be an exceptional case with the unexpected ‑wa (〜わ). This realization of ‑wa is a leftover from past sound changes, an artifact preserved from the archaic Japanese ‑fu from ‑pu verbs (which would have yielded, regularly, ‑wa from ‑fa from ‑pa). This is noted with historical kana orthography in dictionaries; for example, yū (言う) from ifu (言ふ) from ipu and iwanu (言わぬ) from ifanu (言はぬ) (from ipanu).[25] In modern Japanese, original instances of mid‑word consonant [w] have since been dropped before all vowels except [a].[25][26][27] (For more on this shift in consonants, see Old Japanese §Consonants, Early Middle Japanese §Consonants, and Late Middle Japanese §/h/ and /p/). Yuwa‑ is quite common among a number of actors.[22]
↑ Suru and many (but not all) of its compounds currently do not accept potential forms, but rely on the circumlocutory (koto ga) dekiru instead.
↑ For verbs like kau (買う; 'buy'), yū (言う; 'say'), etc, there is a clear preference for sokuonbin in northern and eastern dialects, as in katte (買って), itte/yutte (言って) (with yutte being less common generally or by individual speakers who have used both[22]); and for u‑onbin in western and southern dialects, as in kōte (買うて), yūte (言うて).[30][31] However, according to two surveys conducted in 2016 and 2017, at least some speakers, particularly female college students from Notre Dame Seishin University, from the western prefecture of Okayama, showed a strong preference for itta n/yutta n (言ったん), even though the broader public still preferred yūta n, and there was a discreprancy in preference for the said forms and itta no/yutta no/yūta no (言ったの).[22]
↑ Historically not distinguished from the passive.
↑ Suru is also exceptional in that unlike most verbs it retains its former conclusive form su before beki (べき; 'ought to').[47]
↑ Ja/jatta/jaro rather than da/datta/daro, tōsan(u) rather than tōsanai, etc.
↑ Tōku rather than toō, oyobanakatta rather than oyobananda, nigero rather than nigē, etc.
↑ Some traditional descriptions also count dat in datta ("was/were"), which was historically de arita, as well as deshi in deshita.
↑ For more speficic derivatives, see mentions of aru (ある) in the following sections.
↑ No longer audible on the surface level as it fused with the conjectural auxiliary -u to make the form below. Historically still spelt out in modern literature before spelling reform, as in だらう, though the actual pronunciation was still darō.
↑ Historically also spelt ぢやら or じやら before spelling reform.
↑ Only audible in the negative de (wa) arimasen(u) shown above. When combining with the conjectural auxiliary -u, it became the form shown below. Historically still spelt out in modern literature before spelling reform, as in ませう, though the actual pronunciation was still mashō.
↑ No longer audible on the surface level as it fused with the conjectural auxiliary -u to make the form below. Historically still spelt out in modern literature before spelling reform, as in でせう, though the actual pronunciation was still deshō.
↑ Etymologically only. Currently, instances of ni (wa) aru do not involve the copular ni, but the locative ni, meaning A ni aru actually means "that is in A" rather than "that is A".
↑ Although ‑ro is not unheard of in western and southern Japan.[294]
↑ The author uses the term "central" rather than "western" for the once capital Nara, now located in Kansai.
↑ Compare the alternative forms of joi/ii (良い), yuku/iku (行く).
↑ This verb is primarily godan, therefore the more common imperative is actually kere.
↑ The author argues that the imperative forms of most verbs are inherently rude in speech, barring those of honorific verbs which are presumed to be polite, such as irasshai (いらっしゃい; 'come, please!'), asobase (遊ばせ; 'let do/be, please!'), kudasai (下さい; 'give me, please!'). The problem is that, with the sole exception of goranjiro (御覧じろ; 'look, please!'), most of these verbs' conjugations (yodan/godan) have nothing to do with ‑ro (non-yodan/godan only), giving ‑ro an unavoidable connotation of rudeness. ‑Yo, on the other hand, is associated with classical Japanese (the "written" language) and therefore is the only appropriate option in formal contexts, even in speech.
↑ Yasui used to mean "be at peace",[337] but apart from this imperative form, this meaning is now uncommon.
↑ As imperative forms, used as a more polite way to say "come!" instead of 来い (koi). Occur in the concessive idiom nan de mo gozai/gozare (lit.'be it anything', transl.anything goes; anything's good; anything imaginable),[206] which is synonymous with nan de mo koi.[343]
↑ Unlike with most verbs, ‑ro is optional (possibly dialectal[367]) with 呉れ (kure) and its honorific version 御呉れ (okure).[300][368][369]‑Yo is optionally added, just as to any other imperative form.
↑ ‑Masureba has been said to be uncommon. There was also the pseudo-classical ‑maseba which has been said to be nonstandard.
↑ Usually in the classical (western) construction ‑neba naran(u), the partially classical and partially modern (eastern) ‑neba naranai,[434][435][436] both of which are quivalent to the fully modern ‑nakereba naranai.[437] The polite equivalent of these are ‑neba/‑nakereba narimasen.
↑ In some cases, there may be ambiguity. Compare yoku nai desu (よくないです; 'aren't good') and yoku arimasen (よくありません; 'aren't common; aren't good (?)').
References
1 2 Banno et al. (2020a), pp.86–88, "Lesson 3, Grammar 1: Verb Conjugation". sfnp error: no target: CITEREFBanno_et_al.2020a (help)
↑ 言う. コトバンク (in Japanese). 現代仮名づかいで「いう」と表記するが、発音はユウ。
↑ Yamashita, Yōko (1 August 2016). 「言う」の発音は[イウ]か[ユー]か。. NHK BunkenNHK文研 (in Japanese). NHK Broadcasting Culture Research Institute. Archived from the original on 26 July 2025.
↑ NHK Broadcasting Culture Research Institute, ed. (24 May 2016). NHK日本語発音アクセント新辞典 (in Japanese). NHK Publishing.
↑ "1 John". Holy Bible: New International Version. Biblica. 2011. We know that we have passed from death to life, because we love each other. Anyone who does not love remains in death.
↑ ヨハネ第一書[The First Epistle of John]. 改訳新約聖書 (in Japanese). Japanese Bible Society. 5 October 1917. われら兄弟を愛するによりて、死より生命に移りしを知る、愛せぬ者は死のうちに居る。
↑ ヨハネの第一の手紙[The First Epistle of John]. Holy Bible聖書 (in Japanese). Chūō, Tokyo: Japan Bible Society. 1955. p.379. わたしたちは、兄弟を愛しているので、死からいのちへ移ってきたことを、知っている。愛さない者は、死のうちにとどまっている。
↑ Nishino, Hiroyoshi (15 April 1994). 八五、わが子を蒸焼きにした男[85, The man who casseroled his own son]. 韓非子[Han Feizi]. 中国古典百言百話 (in Japanese). Vol.2. PHP Institute. p.108. ISBN4-569-56628-6. 竪刁は料理番ですが、わが君がまだ召し上がってないのは人間の肉だけと知ると、なんと自分の長男を殺して蒸焼きにし、勧めました。わが子を愛さぬ者はありません。わが子さえ愛せぬ者が、どうしてご主君を愛せましょう。[Shudiao is a cook who, after learning that his lord had not had human flesh, slaughtered his own eldest son, casseroled him, then served him up. No man does not love his own son. If he is not capable of loving even his own son, in what way could he ever love his lord?]
↑ しない(PDF). 方言文法全国地図PDF版ダウンロード (in Japanese). National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics. February 2021.
↑ しよう(PDF). 方言文法全国地図PDF版ダウンロード (in Japanese). National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics. February 2021.
1 2 しろ(PDF). 方言文法全国地図PDF版ダウンロード (in Japanese). National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics. February 2021.
↑ Shioda, Takehiro (1 April 2021). すべき？するべき？. NHK BunkenNHK文研 (in Japanese). NHK Broadcasting Culture Research Institute. Archived from the original on 10 December 2024.
↑ Murakami, Yuito; Todoroki, Rina; Takahashi, Jun (6 July 2021). 日常的に1人1台端末及びクラウドを活用している学級の授業における児童の PC 活用の特徴に関する事例分析. 日本教育工学会論文誌 (in Japanese) (45): 212. PC 及びクラウド活用が日常化した学級の授業であっても，例えば PC やクラウドの活用を目的とするような新しい学習活動はみられなかった．
↑ Nishigaki, Junko (April 2019). 学士課程学生調査からみる本学学生の学修 －2016年度上級生調査を中心に－(PDF). 大学教育 (in Japanese). 16 (2). Osaka City University: 71. これを高いと思うか、低いと思うかは様々かと思いますが、もう少しいてくれると嬉しいというところではありまして、本学の学生は能動的なリサーチなどは少し避けがちなのかもしれないという印象を持ちました。
↑ Izumi, Kyōtarō (10 November 1941) [January 1906]. 式部小路. 鏡花全集 (in Japanese). Vol.6. Kanda, Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. p.348. おんぼろの婆ぢやありましてございますが、一生懸命、あんな役雜な三味線でも、思ひなしか、あの時くらゐ、隅田川の水にだつて、冴えに調子は出たことがございませんよ。」
↑ Martin (2004), pp.495, 1028. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFMartin2004 (help)
1 2 Turgenev, Ivan Sergeyevich (20 November 1948). "Живые мощи" 生神樣[A Living Relic]. Свиданиеあひびき[The Tryst] (in Japanese). Translated by Nakayama, Shōzaburō. Chiyoda, Tokyo: Seijisya. p.258. — Нет, не сюда… Мне за Алексеевкой места известны… многим лучше здешних для тетеревов!「いんえ、ここへぢやありましねえ……。アレクセーエフカの向ふに知つてる所があるんです……、松鷄にや、ここよりあ、ずゐぶん好いんでして！」[“No, not here…… I know some places beyond Alexeyevka……, much better for black grouse than here!”]
↑ Yamawaki, Naoshi (2004). 公共哲学とは何か(PDF). ちくま新書 (in Japanese): 30. そのとき、私の念頭に浮かんだのは、ロバート・ベラーの『心の習慣』（邦訳、みすず書房）の付録「公共哲学としての社会科学」のイメージでして、まさに理念やヴィジョンと社会研究を統合する学問として公共哲学を捉えたわけです。
1 2 3 Shakespeare, William; Washiyama, Daisaburō (10 August 1956). 第三部 眞實は强し[Part 3: The Truth Is Powerful]. Hamletハムレット. 物語シェイクスピア (in Japanese). Bunkyō, Tokyo: Fukumura Shoten. p.72. "To be, or not to be, that is the question. […]"「在るべきか、なかるべきか、それが問題だ。[…]」
↑ Shakespeare, William (9 February 2010). Hamlet Q1ハムレットＱ１. Kobunsha Classics 光文社古典新訳文庫 (in Japanese). Translated by Anzai, Tetsuo. Kobunsha. To be, or not to be, that is the question.生か死か、問題はそれだ。
↑ Shakespeare, William; Washiyama, Daisaburō (20 February 1940). Hamletハムレット. 少年シェイクスピア叢書 (in Japanese). Ushigome, Tokyo: Fukumura Shoten. pp.46–47. "To be, or not to be, that is the question. […]"「生きてゐるか、ゐないか、それが問題じや。[…]」
↑ Tolkien, John Ronald Reuel (10 May 2002) [30 July 1992]. "V The Bridge of Khazad-dûm" 五 カザド゠ドゥムの橋. 旅の仲間 下２[The Travelling Fellowship: Book 2, Part 2]. 指輪物語 (in Japanese). Vol.4. Translated by Seta, Teiji; Tanaka, Akiko (10thed.). Shinjuku, Tokyo: Hyōronsha. pp.29–30. ISBN4-566-02365-6. 'You cannot pass,' he said. The orcs stood still, and a dead silence fell. 'I am a servant of the Secret Fire, wielder of the flame of Anor. You cannot pass. The dark fire will not avail you, flame of Udûn. Go back to the Shadow! You cannot pass.' […] 'You cannot pass!' he said.「きさまは渡ることはできぬ。」と、かれはいいました。オークどもはじっと立ちつくし、死の静けさがあたりをみたしました。「わしは神秘の火に仕える者、アノールの焰の使い手じゃ。きさまは渡ることはできぬ。暗き火、ウドゥンの焰はきさまの助けとはならぬ。常つ闇に戻るがよい！ きさまは渡れぬぞ。」 […] 「きさまは通すことができぬ！」と、かれはいいました。
↑ Jackson, Peter Robert (19 February 2014). The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ringロード・オブ・ザ・リング[Lord of the Rings] (in Japanese). You cannot pass! Gandalf! I am a servant of the Secret Fire, wielder of the flame of Anor. The dark fire will not avail you, flame of Udûn! Go back to the Shadow. You shall not pass!この先は通さん！ ガンダルフ！ 我は神秘の火に仕える者、アノールの炎の使い手じゃ。貴様の放つ火は、儂には通じん！闇の底に戻るがよい。ここは断じて通さん！[You will not pass from this point! Gandalf! I am a servant of the Secret Fire, wielder of the flame of Anor. The fire you set will not reach me! You had better go back to depths of the Shadow. You shall not pass this place!]
↑ Ueno, Kazuhiko (20 April 2012) [2010]. 地場産業研究の課題(PDF). 学芸地理 (in Japanese) (65). Tokyo Gakugei University: 4, 7. 昔，照葉樹林文化とブナ林文化の比較がありましたけれども，そういった自然環境と文化の差が，地場産業の初期的な立地に非常に大きな影響を与えているということは確かであります． […]いわゆる資本のメカニズムを貫徹するための研究であります．
↑ Akagawa, Jirō (12 April 2002) [30 October 1981]. 第二章 用意. 悪妻に捧げるレクイエム. 角川文庫 (in Japanese). Chiyoda, Tokyo: Kadokawa Shoten. 公路「着想や展開はどうってことないのを、インタビューという形式で楽しく読ませる。感服しました。景山さんの奥さんも旅行好きだけど、まさかご自分のことじゃありますまいね。──これ、冗談です」
↑ Inoue, Tomoko (2005). 蓄積から挑戦へ. Journal of Japan Academy of Critical Care Nursing日本クリティカルケア看護学会誌 (in Japanese). 1 (1): 15–16. 設立記念講演などと大変僭越ではありますが，設立に携わった者として，また微力ではありますがこれからの学会の運営を担うものとして，この学会が大きく個性豊かに育つことを祈念し，この学会に託す思いを述べさせていただければと思います． […] ところで，原語のまま用いるのであるならば，クリティカルケア看護の定義が必要と思われます．現時点での私見ではありますが，クリティカルケア看護とは，『あらゆる治療・療養の場，あらゆる病期・病態にある人々に生じた，急激な生命の危機状態に対して，専門性の高い看護ケアを提供することで，生命と生活の質（QOL）の向上をめざす』と定義致しました．
↑ Dostoevsky, Fyodor Mikhailovich (6 March 2015). Demons悪霊 (in Japanese). Vol.2. Translated by Ikeda, Kentarō. Gutenberg 21. 慥なる心にて、[...]それからペテルブルグへ送るためにきわめて高潔なる弁明の手紙を書いて、[...]」[...]このような偉大な改革を迎えてはロシア人のだれしもが感激するのは当然であるといった意味の言葉をさしはさんだ。[...]民族性なるものは、[...]でっぷりふとって健康そうな旅行中のひとりの大佐が腰をおろして、[...]イワン・オーシッポヴィチはささやくような小声で遠回しに話をはじめたが、[...]「[...]君は善良な、高潔な心の持ち主だ」[...]いったいなんなのかね。あんな熱に浮かされたような突飛な行為に、「[...]一般的に言ってロシアの行政官なるものがどういうものか、[...]宙ぶらりんな曖昧な状態は、[...]ニコライ・スタヴローギン君の生涯における曖昧なる一時期、[...]私はロシアが偉大なる寓話詩人クルィローフを所有し、[...]そうして私はあなたのもっとも忠実な親友にはちがいありませんが、[...]スタヴローギンの内なる憎悪は、[...]せっかちな中ぐらいの無能な男です、そこで僕はもっとも無能なるやり方でむりやり会話をかっさらってしまった。[...]《はじめは単なる友情から忠実なる大学生として、[...]》
↑ 中央環境審議会廃棄物・リサイクル部会廃棄物処理制度専門委員会（第１０回） (in Japanese). Ministry of the Environment. 15 September 2009. また、処理の定義の明確化、帳簿の記載内容の明確化でありますとか、一方、事業者側といたしましては、多大な負担を課すことになる新たな帳簿の作成・保存制度は創設すべきでないでありますとか、製造事業者の活動を阻害するような規制は実施すべきでないといった、そういったご意見をいただいております。
↑ Kōzuki, Shin (17 April 2020). 冒険者ギルドの受付嬢. 出来損ないと呼ばれた元英雄は、実家から追放されたので好き勝手に生きることにした[The Banished Former Hero Lives as He Pleases] (in Japanese) (１～５巻合本版ed.). TO Books. 「……？ 何を言っているでありますか？ ちゃんとしているではないでありますか」 […] 「了解したでありますが、アレン殿は冒険者ではないでありますから、手数料が倍かかってしまうでありますよ？ 今ならば簡単に登録出来るでありますが？」
↑ Shindō, Atsushi (12 March 2020), 令和２年３月三種町議会定例会会議録(PDF) (in Japanese), Mitane, Akita, p.65, まず、ないわけではなくあります。ですが、維持修繕等に活用するような内容を全て網羅してございませんので、そちらのほうを活用はしていないということでございます。{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
↑ Arai, Toshirō (13 September 2023), 令和５年第５回長瀞町議会定例会会議録目次(PDF) (in Japanese), Nagatoro, Saitama, p.42, まとまった状態でなくありますけれども、そういうような面で二小のことなんかについても非常に活用するのに、ただただこの半年後に閉まってしまった、すぐに何もないというのではなくて、何かいろいろ活用が考えられたらということで聞いているわけであります。{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
↑ 教育課程部会 高等学校部会（第4回） 議事録. Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology-Japan文部科学省 (in Japanese). 16 June 2016. 現実問題、クラブが終わって生徒が帰って7時頃から会議をするというのは別段不思議じゃなくありますのでね。本当にそういう時間をどのように確保するかというのは大変重要かと思います。
↑ Murobuse, Kōshin (9 June 1924). 性のユトピア. 自由人は斯く語る (in Japanese). Kyōbashi, Tokyo: Hihyōsha. p.289. 彼は、結婚における今日の所謂變愛なるものを罵つて曰く、結婚における文明的變愛とは、一ケ月の終りには、怒らくは結婚の第二日には、心の一切の幻覺から醒めてしまつて、ただ家庭的紐帶に連なつてゐる純粹の殘忍性、偶然の交合のほかの何ものでもあらないと。
↑ Kikuchi, Kan (10 April 1944). ある戰國女性の生活............おあん物語. わが愛讀文章 (in Japanese). 非凡閣. p.23. それ故白齒の首は、おはぐろつけて給はれと賴まれておじやつたが、首もこはいものではあらない。
↑ Kinoshita, Mokutarō (10 November 1985) [5 April 1970]. 南蛮寺門前 (in Japanese). このお寺は唯のお寺ではあらない。[...]その坊様は真の人間ではあらない。[...]いやいや、天狗様でもあらない。[...]ほんまに嘘ではあらないと云ふのぢやな。
1 2 Murakami, Haruki (25 February 2017). 騎士団長殺し[Killing Commendatore] (in Japanese). Vol.第1部 顕れるイデア編. Translated by Gabriel, Philip; Goossen, Ted. Shinjuku, Tokyo: Shinchosha. p.349–353, 359. ISBN978-4-10-353432-7. 「あたしは何も絵の中から抜け出してきたわけではあらないよ」[...]雨田先生はもうおぼろで平和な世界に移行してしまっておられるし、騎士団長だって商標登録とかされているわけじゃあらない。[...]騎士団長以外の何ものでもあらない。[...]「いや、それほど簡単ではあらない。[...]」[...]あたしは霊ではあらない。[...]「あたしは夢なんかじゃあらないよ、もちろん」[It is not like I escaped from the painting," [...] Mr. Amada has gone on to a hazy, peaceful world, and the Commendatore is not trademarked. [...] Nothing other than the Commendatore. [...] "No, it is not that simple. [...]" [...] I am no spirit. [...] "I am no dream, I can tell you. Negative. Of course,]
↑ von Goethe, Johann Wolfgang (15 September 1935). "Siebentes Buch" 第七卷[Seventh Book]. Wilhelm Meiſters Lehrjɑhreヸルヘルム・マイステルの修行時代[Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship]. ゲーテ全集 (in Japanese). Vol.2. Translated by Nakajima, Kiyoshi. Yodobashi, Tokyo: ゲーテ全集刊行會. p.205. Dɑs liebe Herʒ ſchlɑ̈gt nicht mehr vor Ungeduld, Sie ʒu ſehen, nicht etwɑ in einer benɑchbɑrten Kɑmmer wɑrtet ſie ɑuf den Ausgɑng meiner Erʒɑ̈hlung, oder meines Mɑ̈rchens; […] Ich hɑbe Ihnen weiter nichts ʒu ſɑgen,あのいとしい心もな、もうあんた樣に逢ひ度え逢ひ度えと云つて、どきどきしてもゐましねえ。其邊の室にでも忍んでゐて、私の話の終るのを、お伽噺の終るのを、待つてるんでもありましねえ。[…] 『もう此上あんた樣に云ふ事は何もありましねえ。』[The dear heart beats no more with eagerness to see you. Not in a nearby chamber is she waiting for how my narrative, or fable, ends. […] “I have nothing more to tell you.”]
1 2 de Balzac, Honoré (18 November 1941). Eugénie Grandet純愛[Pure Love] (in Japanese). Translated by Shinjō, Waichi. Kanda, Tokyo: Tokyodo. pp.113, 231. — Le fermier de la Lande en avait dans son panier, je les lui ai demandés, et il me les a donnés pour m'être agréable, le mignon. […] — Sainte Vierge, mademoiselle, vous avez les yeux à la perdition de votre âme! Ne regardez donc pas le monde comme ça.「ランドの小作人が籠に卵を入れておきましたから、それを下さいと賴んだら、私の機嫌をとるために吳れましたゞ。まあいゝ人ぢやありましねえか。」 […] 「あらまあ、お孃さまつたら、魂の拔け出したやうな眼付をしていらつしやるだ。そんな風に人を見るものでありましねえ。」[“The farmer from Lande had some eggs in his basket, and when I asked him for some, he gave them to me just to please me. Isn’t he a nice chap?” […] “Goodness me, mademoiselle, your gaze feels as though your soul had escaped you. Don’t look at me like that.”]
↑ Gogol, Nikolai Vasilyevich (10 November 1948). "Глава XI" 第十一章[Chapter XI]. Мертвыя души死せる魂[Dead Souls]. 岩波文庫 (in Japanese). Vol.2. Translated by Hirai, Hajime. Chiyoda, Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. pp.162–163. — Да ведь, Павел Иванович, нужно будет лошадей ковать. — Ах ты чушка! чурбан! а прежде зачем об этом не сказал? Не было разве времени? — Да время-то было… Да вот и колесо тоже, Павел Иванович, шину нужно будет совсем перетянуть, потому что теперь дорога ухабиста, шибень такой везде пошел… Да если позволите доложить: перед у брички совсем расшатался, так что она, может быть, и двух станций не сделает.「だけんど、パーウェル・イワーノヸッチ、馬に蹄鐵をうたなきやなりましねえでがせう。」 「えい、この、ぼんくらの豚め！ 木偶の坊め！ それならそれと、なぜ前に言はなかつたんだ？ それだけの暇がなかつたとでもいふのかっ？」 「それあ、暇がなかつたちふ譯ではありましねえがね……。それから車の輪でがすがね、パーウェル・イワーノヸッチ、あれも輪鐵をすつかり取つ替へなきや駄目でがせうなあ、なにせ、今頃は道路がでこぼこで、どこへ行つてもガタガタと搖れますだから……。それから、これも一言いはせて貰ひますが、馬車の前の方が、まるでぐらぐらになつてをりましてね、あれぢやあ、たうてい二丁場とはもちますめえよ。」[“Paul Ivanovitch, we need to shoe the horses.” “You doltish swine! Worthless fool! Why did you not tell me of that before? Was there no spare time to do it?” “I suppose there was time…… Also, one of the wheels, Paul Ivanovitch, we need to get a new tire for it, too, ’cause the roads’re bumpy and we’re shaking to and fro everywhere we go now…… Also, if you’ll let me say this, the front of the britchka is so rickety that, at this rate, it won’t make it to two more stations.”]
↑ Chekhov, Anton Pavlovich (20 January 1955). "Медведь" 熊[The Bear]. 熊 他二篇[The Bear, and Two More Plays]. 角川文庫 (in Japanese). Translated by Yonekawa, Masao. Chiyoda, Tokyo: Kadokawa Shoten. p.72. (Дразнит.) Ничаво… Я тебе задам — ничаво!（口眞似する）何でもありましねえだと……何がなんでもありましねえんだか、後でうんと敎へてくれるぞ！[(Mockingly) “Nuthin’ at all”…… You better let me know what’s nuthin’ at all later!]
↑ Izumi, Kyōtarō (22 July 1942) [November 1901]. 袖屛風. 鏡花全集 (in Japanese). Vol.7. Kanda, Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. p.12. 「早や、これは何うも、曩細いのと言ひましたは恁麼ことぢやあありましねえ、私も足すだから、お前樣も一握出さつせえ、然して、豪え先生で、澤山見て貰ひ人のあるやうに、机の上へ並べて置くといふ謀計ださ、もし、早繼の粉でも、見切賣の瀨戶物でも、見さつせえ皆積んである、あれだよお前樣。」と正直に辭退する。
↑ Aeba, Kōson (13 September 1912). 滿地黃金. 篁村叢書 (in Japanese). Nihonbashi, Tokyo: Hakubunkan. p.673. 噓ぢやアありましない埋つてある所はチヤーンと分かつて居るのです、
↑ Tolstoy, Leo (28 October 1924). "Плоды просвещения" 文明の果實[The Fruits of Enlightenment]. トルストイ戲曲全集[The Complete Tolstoy Dramatic Collection] (in Japanese). Translated by Yonekawa, Masao. Kanda, Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. p.210. ベッチイ まア、それはママーに訊いてご覽なさい。兄さんの爲めなら犬に五百ルーブル出すのも高いと思はないけれど、着物の百ルーブルは高いんですとさ。わたしさう〱馬鹿な役廻りは勤めてゐられないわ！〔百姓等を指して〕 これは一體誰？ グリゴーリイ 百姓らでございます。何か土地を買ふとか申しまして。 ベッチイ わたし獵師かと思つた。お前がたは獵師ぢやないの？ 第一の百姓 決してさうぢやアありましねえ、お孃さま。わしらア土地賣買の契約さ行ふべえと思つて、旦那さまのとこさ上りましただ。 ベッチイ どういふ譯だらう、兄さんのところへ獵師が來る筈になつてるのに。お前がた本當に獵師ぢやないんだね？〔百姓ら無言〕 何て馬鹿な人達だらう！〔戶口に近寄り〕 兄さん！〔聲高に笑ふ〕[Betsy Well, you’d better ask Mama about that. Though she doesn’t mind the 500 rubles for my brother’s dog, 100 for a dress’s too much. I can’t play my part looking like an idiot! [Pointing at Peasants] Who are these? Gregory They are some peasants who said they wanted to buy some land. Betsy I thought they were hunters. Are you not hunters? First Peasant Not at all, Miss. We came to see the Mister ’bout finalizin’ the title deeds to some land. Betsy How come? Some hunters were supposed to come to my brother’s. Are you really not hunters? [The Peasants are silent] What idiots! [Goes to the door] Vovo! [Laughs loudly]]
↑ Masuda, Kyūka (19 July 1942). 短篇. In Hagiwara, Ragetsu (ed.). 草笛 (in Japanese). Fukiage, Saitama: Masuda, Nao. pp.139–140. 「へい俺かな、之れでも五年位下がつてゐますべい。でもお蔭樣で痛くも痒くもありましない」 […] 「別に氣にもかけましないが、生徒さんが痰瘤爺々々々つて面白がつて引張りますので時に痛くしやすよ」 […] 「先生がなあ瘤ぢやありますめい。瘤は俺共の樣な下等のやつに出來る化物で、先生なんぞに出來る等のもんぢやありましないや」[…]「まるで俺がな菎蒻でがす。之れで內に何があるもんでやんすがな。瘤は出來ても別に金持に成りさうにもありましない」
↑ Gorky, Maxim (15 January 1947). "XXV" 二十五. Мать母[Mother] (in Japanese). Vol.1. Translated by Murata, Harumi. Kanda, Tokyo: Dai-Ichi Shuppan. p.245. Их господские мысли мне, мужику, неведомы. Что сам я делаю — я знаю, а чего они хотят — это мне неизвестно. Тысячу лет люди аккуратно господами были, с мужика шкуру драли, а вдруг — проснулись и давай мужику глаза протирать. Я, брат, до сказок не охотник, а это — вроде сказки. От меня всякие господа далеко.旦那衆の考へと言ふものは、私のやうな百姓にはわからんもんでさあ、私は自分でやることは――分つてますが、あの連中のしたがることは――知れませんわい。長い間念入りに旦那面をして、百姓の皮をひんむいて置きながら、不意に――眼が覺めたと言つて百姓に眼をこすらせようと言ふんでさ。私はお伽話といふ奴が好きぢやありましねえ、がこれと來ちや――全くお伽話でさあ。私にやどんな旦那も緣遠いものです。[The gentlemen’s thought is beyond a peasant like me. What I do myself――I know, what they want――I don’t get. For a long time, they put on their preening gentleman front, while flaying the peasant’s skin, then all of a sudden――they say they’ve woken up and they want to rub the peasant’s eyes. I don’t care for fairy tales, and that there――sounds mighty like a fairy tale. I’m a long way away from any gentleman.]
↑ Ozawa, Aijirō (5 October 1944). 皇國劍道史 (in Japanese). Kōjimachi, Tokyo: 田中誠光堂. pp.115, 194. 我勝たぬは敵のよく守る處で、負る處は勝つ處であらぬ。 [...]「天は自ら助くるものを助く」 の心得は千古不滅の眞理であらぬばならぬ。
↑ Iwami, Mamoru (25 November 1946). 朝鮮の佛蹟を訪ねて. 山河大地 (in Japanese). Kyoto: Nagata Bunshōdō. p.107. 由來山は遊覽の地ではあらぬ。
↑ Israfil (10 February 2021). 淡海乃海 水面が揺れる時 三英傑に嫌われた不運な男、朽木基綱の逆襲 (in Japanese). Vol.10. TO Books. 「申し訳ありませぬ」[...]「気休めを言っているのではありませぬか」[...]「余り良くありませぬ。[...]」
↑ Turgenev, Ivan Sergeyevich (19 December 2012). "Однодворец Овсяников" 郷士オフシャニコフ[The Peasant Proprietor Ovsyanikov]. Записки охотника猟人日記[A Sportsman's Sketches] (in Japanese). Vol.1. Translated by Sasaki, Akira. Gutenberg 21. 『いや、伯爵、私は商人じゃありませぬ。たとえ不要のボロ一つだって売るわけには参りません。そりゃ、あなたに敬意を表するため、女房を差上げるくらいの覚悟はありますが、眉目よしだけは平に御容赦......いっそこの身が虜になった方がましなくらいです』
1 2 Avril. 第3章 因縁の決闘. 追放魔術師と欠陥魔法使い、伝統主義社会を破壊する。後ついでに世界を救う。 (in Japanese). 小説家になろう. 「好きじゃない、じゃない。嫌いだよ。あいつ等は、『魔法使いであらずんば、人間じゃあらず』そんなクソみたいな標語をモットーにしてる屑どもだ。私みたいな魔法不全者はもちろん、単属性魔法使いや変わり種魔法を使える奴らも、劣等劣性魔法使いって差別してる。分かる、シンシア?
↑ Kanda, Kiichirō (1973), 東洋学における大谷大学の貢献(PDF) (in Japanese), p.73, それから東洋学と申しましても、本学のことでありますので、しぜん仏教のことになりますが、私は仏教信者ではあっても仏教学者ではありませず、したがってその点また何かとおきき苦しいことも多かろうと存じます。その辺のところもあらかじめおことわり致しておきまして、これから暫くご静聴下さるようお願い申します。
↑ Izumi, Kyōtarō (10 November 1941) [August 1900]. 三枚續. 鏡花全集 (in Japanese). Vol.6. Kanda, Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. p.143. 人通のない土手だつて、軍鷄ばかり置いて行きや、何處へ去つちまふも知れたもんぢアありませずね。見りや溜池の中に舟もあつたし、材木もありましたが、水死人を搜すやうに鷄を浮しとく數ぢやありませず、持扱ひましたね、全く氣が氣ぢやあ無かつたんで、一羽抱へ込んで跣足で池の緣をまご〱してる風ツてのはありません、我ながら薄ぼんやり、何うしてるのかと思ひました。
1 2 Tolkien, John Ronald Reuel (30 April 2002) [30 July 1992]. "I Many Meetings" 一 数々の出会い. 旅の仲間 下１[The Travelling Fellowship: Book 2, Part 1]. 指輪物語 (in Japanese). Vol.3. Translated by Seta, Teiji; Tanaka, Akiko (9thed.). Shinjuku, Tokyo: Hyōronsha. pp.10–11. ISBN4-566-02364-8. 'Yes, it would. You were beginning to fade,' answered Gandalf. 'The wound was overcoming you at last. A few more hours and you would have been beyond our aid. But you have some strength in you, my dear hobbit! As you showed in the Barrow. That was touch and go: perhaps the most dangerous moment of all. I wish you could have held out at Weathertop.'「そうじゃろ。あんたは気が遠くなりかけておった。」と、ガンダルフは答えました。「あやうくあの傷に滅されるところじゃったのよ。もう数時間おそければ、わしらの救助も及ばなかったはずじゃ。ところが、わがホビット君よ、たしかにあんたの中には力がひそんでおる！塚山で示したようにな。間一髪じゃった。きっともっとも危ない瞬間じゃったろうなあ。風見が丘で踏み止まることができればよかったがのう。」
↑ Koike, Yasutoshi (29 October 2015). 日本人なら知っておきたい正しい家相の本 本当は間取りを変えずに鬼門は避けられる (in Japanese). PRESIDENT Inc. そんな日々、有名な家相家のアドバイスで、鬼門、裏鬼門などの条件をすべてクリアし幸せが約束されたはずの施主が、完成した家に入居するや大君こかかったり亡くなってしまったりするようなことが、一度や二度ではなくありました。占い師の言う通りに家相を取り入れても、幸せは約束されないどころか、不幸ごとが嘲笑うように起きる。そんなケースをたくさん見ることになりました。
↑ 知事臨時記者会見（令和3年6月18日）概要 (in Japanese). Chiba. 18 June 2021. いや、特にないと思いますね。前回も2か月先までやりましたよね。だから多分、その期間としては同じですね。前回からですかね、少し長めにしたのは。そうでないと、例えばまん延防止等重点措置が延長されても、その先のところの予約がフリーで、ものすごい人数に既に売っていて、それはキャンセルしなくてもいいという状況になると、まん延防止等重点措置がかかっているのに、なぜかものすごい人がいるよねという、この状況というのがやはり課題だというふうに指摘を、これは別に千葉県に限った話でなくありましたので、そういう中で、千葉県も含めて少し先を見て人数制限等をかけるような形になっていますので、これは特に何か、例えばオリンピックがあるからとか、そういうことではない、前回からの対応という形です。
↑ Matsuzaka, Jirō (23 March 2023). 全スタッフの給与を、一律ベースアップ?! 誰もが頑張れる理由は、組織への強い信頼. Fenix Job Journal (in Japanese). Fenix Job. 一緒に働く仲間ですから、僕もその職について調べるじゃないですか。情報を提供すればその子だって喜んでくれるし、僕自身話を続ける内に興味が増して、知識だって増える。こういうことが、これまでに1人や2人じゃなくありました。
↑ Yatomi, Hamao (1 August 1926). 一、甲斐の國學者 萩原元克. In Hagiwara, Raihei (ed.). 甲斐の國學者 萩原元克 (in Japanese). Kōfu, Yamanashi: 甲斐志料編纂會. p.4. 溝した一因であらなかつたとは、
↑ Fukami, Giichi (10 October 1931). 第二章 世界經濟思想の由來. 世界經濟總論. 世界經濟硏究 (in Japanese). Vol.1. Kanda, Tokyo: 瞭文堂. pp.23–24. 率直に言ふことを許さるれば、スミスに於ける自由貿易理論は尚ほ未だ全きものではあらなかつた。
↑ Twain, Mark (9 June 1926). 車中奇談. 世界を笑はせた皮肉な話 (in Japanese). Translated by Kagatani, Rinnosuke. Kanda, Tokyo: Shōryūdō Shoten. p.97. けれどそれはもう私共を苦しめる力がありませんでした。[...]決してそれ以上のものではありませぬでした。
↑ Kuzuhara, Shigeru (4 November 1919). 靑チヨツキ先生. 砲臺島 (in Japanese). Nihonbashi, Tokyo: Hakubunkan. p.170. けれども、何時までも、お煎餠は、ギシ〱一杯ではあらなんだ。
↑ Inoue, Chōtarō (15 June 1930). 十二 鐵道國有史. 交通地理學 (in Japanese). Kyōbashi, Tokyo: Meiji Tosho. pp.175–176. （三）政府經營は特に有効であらなんだにしても低廉ではなかつた。凡て許可を得て交通狀態の差異により私設鐵道は運賃を低減して居る。
↑ Akutagawa, Ryūnosuke (5 July 1948). 奉敎人の死[The Death of a Christian]. 奉敎人の死[The Death of a Christian] (in Japanese). Chiyoda, Tokyo: Hosokawa Shoten. p.3. 去んぬる頃、日本長崎の「さんた・るちや」と申す「えけれしや」（寺院）に、「ろおれんぞ」と申すこの國の少年がござつた。これは或年御降誕の祭の夜、その「えけれしや」の戶口に、餓ゑ疲れてうち伏して居つたを、參詣の奉敎人衆が介抱し、それより伴天連の憐みにて、寺中に養はれる事となつたげでござるが、何故かその身の素性を問へば、故鄕は「はらいそ」（天國）父の名は「でうす」（天主）などと、何時も事もなげな笑に紛らいて、とんとまことは明した事もござない。なれど親の代から「ぜんちよ」（異敎徒）の輩であらなんだ事だけは、手くびにかけた靑玉の「こんたつ」（念珠）を見ても、知れたと申す。[Once upon a time, at an "igreja" (church) named "Santa Lúcia" in Nagasaki, Japan, there was a boy named "Lourenço". As he was lying listless from starvation at the entrance to the "igreja" on a Christmas night, a group of Christian pilgrims found and cared for him, and then, the padres took him in to the church out of pity. But for whatever reason, whenever asked about his origin, he would never tell the truth, but deflect with such glib jokes as that he came from "Paraíso" (Heaven) and his father was known as "Deus" (God). However, seeing that he had some blue "contas" (beads) around his wrist, it could be gleaned that his parents were no mere "gentios" (heathens).]
↑ de Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel (13 November 1915). ドン・キホーテ[Don Quixote] (in Japanese). Vol.1. Translated by Shimamura, Hōgetsu; Katagami, Noburu (2nded.). Kōjimachi, Tokyo: Uetake Shoin. p.752, 906. No fueron tan vanas nuestras oraciones que no fuesen oídas del cielo; [...] Duro se nos hizo de creer la continencia del mozo,私たちの祈りは天に屆かぬほどに效ないものではありませなんだ。[...]私たちに取つてはその若者の節慾を信ずることは容易でありませなんだ。[Our prayers were not so in vain as not to reach Heaven. [...] It was not easy for us to credit the young man's continence.]
↑ Shibata, Renzaburō (20 December 1966). 裏返し忠臣蔵. 柴錬立川文庫 (in Japanese). Chiyoda, Tokyo: Bungeishunju. pp.33–34, 177, 183, 251, 254, 257–258. ……わからなんだ。[…]「……しかし、わしの憤は、消えはせなんだ。[…]」[…]「……左様か。吉良殿が、そのような悪党とは、知らなんだな」[…]「わたしは、若様が、よもや、浮橋大夫と枕を交される、とは思うて居りませなんだ。……あれで、よろしゅうございました」[…]「いかにも――。その通りでは、ござらなんだかな？」[…]「まこと、失礼なおたずねをつかまつりますが、貴女様は、堀部安兵衛殿とは、一度も、契られませなんだか？」[…]実は、この男、忍びの者にて、つまり、赤穂藩へ仕えてはいたものの、家来ではありませなんだ。[…]「[…]すがには、もとより、何が書かれてあるのか、判る由もありませなんだが、もうおさむらい様は、もどっては来なさらぬ、と予感したと申します。はたして、安兵衛殿は、再びその家には、戻って参られなかった。[…]……つまり、すがと安兵衛殿とは、たったそれだけの縁しか持って居りませなんだ」
↑ Kaionji, Chōgorō (1 February 1989). 柳沢騒動. 時代小説文庫 (in Japanese). Vol.162. Fujimi Shobō. pp.19, 39, 126. 頼りに思う大猷院様（三代家光）は上様が六つになられた年にあえなくおなくなりなさるし、それからのわしの苦労は一通りではありませなんだ。あの頃は、上様が今日のようなご身分におなり遊ばそうとは、誰も思うておりませなんだ。[...]「お名前は存じませなんだが、あの人ならば、わたくしも感心しておりました」
↑ Yoshino, Takumi (10 December 2006). プロローグ 密談. レイン (in Japanese). Vol.4 (2nded.). AlphaPolis. 「——そのようなわけで、あのレインと申す輩がドラゴンスレイヤーなのはもはや確実です。我が配下を一撃で倒したあの力、侮ることは出来ないかと。あのような者がついているとなると、王女暗殺は最初から暗殺ギルドなどの手に負える仕事ではありませなんだ。我らの判断ミスです」
↑ Katayama, Takako (1 December 1925). 三、蘇生から闇鬪へ. 最終まで忍べ (in Japanese). Yokohama, Kanagawa: 正愛社. pp.111–112. 『好きは好きでしたから無論嫌やぢやありませなんだけど、何といつたつてまだ漸つと十六だつたんですもの、ぼか〱ちやんの方が當然でせう。[...]』
↑ Rabelais, François (20 July 1975) [6 November 1974]. 第二三章 嵐が終り、パニュルジュが陽気者ぶりを見せること. Le QVART LIVRE des fɑicts et dicts Heroıques du bon Pɑntɑgruel第四之書 パンタグリュエル物語[The Fourth Book: The Tales of Pantagruel]. 岩波文庫 (in Japanese). Vol.4. Translated by Watanabe, Kazuo (2nded.). Chiyoda, Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. p.142. もしほんとうに、死というものが、（事実そうなのでございましょうが、）宿命の定める避け難い必然でありませば、かくかくの時間にかくかくの死方をするということは、神の聖なるみ心だと〔一半は神々の思召し、他半は我々の自由意志に属するものと〕考えて居ります。
↑ Tanaka, Senshō (26 April 1914). 第參編 炭手前. 通俗 茶の湯早まなび (in Japanese). Hongō, Tokyo: 茶禪房. pp.180–181. 此火箸は羽箒と、其長短、大抵同樣のものではりますれば、前の端を揃へる樣に並べます。
↑ Rodríguez de Montalvo, Garci (17 September 2019). 第六十一章 煮えたぎる湖の島へ戦さをしかけて囚われのアルバン・デ・ノルガーレス王とアングリオテ・デ・エストラバウスを解放したい意向をリスアルテ王が騎士達と語らった次第そんなおりしも海からやってきた巨人の女がアマディスがアルダン・カニレオと闘うように王妃と廷臣の前で国王に要請し、アルダン・カニレオが敗れれば島は国王に恭順を示し、救出を待っている囚人を解放しよう。もしまたアマディスが敗れれば要求はただひとつ、その首級をマダシマのもとへ送ることだと言上した経緯. Amadís de Gaulaアマディス・デ・ガウラ (in Japanese). Translated by Iwane, Kunikazu. Sairyusha Publishing Company. 「この度の闘いにあなたは含まれておりませんが、後日、私の弟との決闘の場を設けましょう。友人を公言なさるアマディスの仇敵でありますれば、ひとたび彼と当たれば二度とそのような減らず口はきけますまい。」
↑ Kunihiro, Sengi (20 January 2025). ●3 宮廷聖術士と、辺境の村の災難. 最終兵器勇者 ～異世界で魔王を倒した後も大人しくしていたのに、いきなり処刑されそうになったので反逆します。国を捨ててスローライフの旅に出たのですが、なんか成り行きで新世界の魔王になりそうです～ (in Japanese). TO Books. 「アルサルめの抵抗は想定外でしたが......ええ、ええ、結果は上々でございます。なにが〝銀穹の勇者〟でしょうか。星空は星空でも、あやつこそ凶星の申し子。世に不幸を撒き散らす悪鬼でありますれば。国外へ追放できたのは、まことによきことと存じます」
↑ Muranushi, Tomohide (March 2010). "An exploration into the core of the information science" 情報学の中核にあるもの —— 根源からの再出発を企図して ——(PDF). 愛知淑徳大学論集—文学部・文学研究科篇— (in Japanese) (35). Aichi Shukutoku University: 126, 128, 133. 局相として偏りと歪みを含みながらも全体として均質であり、構造からはその性格を特定することができないし、あらゆる対象を併呑しようとする領域であるなら、外殻からその宇宙を記述することはできない。[...]そしてそれらの助力が有効であるなら、その探求の営為は個別主題領域として異化され、中心部から離れることにならないだろうか。[...]しかし、この帰結が誤りであるならそれまでだし、妥当なのであればそれもそれだけのことであるから、この帰結から出発し、先へと進むことがより一層、重要である。
↑ Miyajima, Masako (20 March 2023). 近代日本における霊性論 （2）鈴木ビアトリスの霊性(PDF). Habitus (in Japanese). 27: 122, 123. 若しも 実際にその一なる生命、一なる光明の表現である他の生物に冷酷でありますならば、どうして私達は幸福や喜びを得ることができましょう。[How can we ourselves obtain happiness and joy if we are cruel to other forms which are really expressions of the One Life and the One Light.]
↑ Iwai, Shūichirō (28 July 2023). 第三章 指揮官としての成長. 今村均 敗戦日本の不敗の司令官 (in Japanese). Kōtō, Tokyo: PHP Institute. p.144. ISBN978-4-569-85508-0. 従って右が、単なる軍司令官の希望でありますなら、私の考えを断行いたします。
↑ Tanzawa, Kazuhira (June 2012), 土木森林環境委員会会議録(PDF) (in Japanese), p.14, 相手方が法的根拠はないと言っているんです。錯誤無効じゃあるでしょう、認めているんだもの。
↑ 松本大臣等記者会見録(PDF) (in Japanese), 28 June 2011, p.3, 松本大臣は、8月の会期内に退陣をすべきだというようなお考えでありますでしょうか。
↑ 砕石及び砂利の出荷基準に関する専門検討会（第2回）議事録 (in Japanese), 28 February 2012, p.22, 仮にもし皆様方が、そういったことや何やらで、例えば厳しい値に問題があるとかいうときには、先程米原委員がご説明された現存被ばく状況の話や等級別取り扱いというような形でそれらを考えて、少し高目に設定するというのも方法ではありますでしょうし、あるいは統一的な基準になると、どうしても低目でないと、安全じゃないとか皆様も安心されないというようなところも出てくるかもしれません。
↑ Mori, Kainan (20 January 1914). 贈趙協律晢. 李義山詩講義 (in Japanese). Vol.1. Kanda, Tokyo: Bunkaidō Shoten. p.210. 大分遠い親族ではあるでありませうけれ共、兔も角も、姻族の續柄であります所の者であります。
↑ Descartes, René (20 October 1949). "EPISTOLA SAPIENTISSIMIS Clarißimiſque viris SACRÆ FACULTATIS Theologiæ Pariſienſis Decano & Doctoribus." 書簡 聖なるパリ神學部のいとも明識にしていとも高名なる學部長並びに博士諸賢に[Letter]. MEDITATIONES DE PRIMA PHILOSOPHIA IN QVA DEI EXISTENTIA ET ANIMÆ IMMORTALITAS DEMONSTRATVR省察 神の存在、及び人間の靈魂と肉體との區別を論證する、第一哲學についての[Meditations on First Philosophy in Which the Existence of God and the Distinction of the Human Soul from the Body Are Demonstrated] (in Japanese). Translated by Miki, Kiyoshi. Cumque ſæpe in hac vita majora vitiis, quam virtutibus præmia proponantur, pauci rectum utili præferrent, ſi nec Deum timerent, nec aliam vitam expectarent:そしてこの世においてはしばしば徳よりも悖徳に一層大きな報酬が供せられるのでありますから、もし神を畏れず、また來世を期待しないならば、利よりも正を好む者は少數であるでありませう。[And since often in this life there are greater rewards for the vices than for the virtues, few will prefer what is right to what is useful, if they neither fear God nor expect an afterlife.]
↑ Nishimura, Itaru (March 2024). 第4節 新しいデジタル技術の導入・その際の対応. 新しいデジタル技術導入と労使コミュニケーションに関する研究（2）(PDF). JILPT 調査シリーズ (in Japanese). Japan Institute for Labour Policy and Training. p.36. いずれにせよ、導入前とは言うものの、そのタイミングは相対的ではあれ、実際の導入時期に近くなっているように思われる。
↑ Augustine (8 September 1946). "Liber VII" 第七卷[Book VII]. Augustini Confessionesアウグスチヌス懴悔錄[Augustine’s Confessions] (in Japanese). Translated by Uchimura, Tatsusaburō. Nihonbashi, Tokyo: Shunjūsha. p.178. Itaque si te, quidquid es, id est substantiam tuam, qua es, incorruptibilem dicerent, falsa esse illa omnia et exsecrabilia;それで若し彼等が爾は何でありませ、爾が由て以て存在しますその本體は朽つべきでないとするならば、卽ち此等の所言皆僞で又詛ふべきである。[So then, should they assume Thy Substance whereby Thou art, whatsoever Thou be, to be incorruptible, then all these statements are false and execrable.]
↑ Banno et al. (2020a), pp.190–191, "Lesson 8, Grammar 1: Short Forms". sfnp error: no target: CITEREFBanno_et_al.2020a (help)
↑ Miura, Akira (2011). Essential Japanese Vocabulary: Learn to Avoid Common (and Embarrassing!) Mistakes (in Japanese). Tuttle. p.234. ISBN978-4-8053-1127-1. Shinjiru信じる has another version, shinzuru信ずる, but this latter is more formal and is basically a written form.
1 2 3 4 5 6 Watanabe, Toshirō; Skrzypczak, Edmund R.; Snowden, Paul, eds. (11 July 2003). New Japanese-English Dictionary新和英大辞典 (in Japanese and English) (5thed.). Kenkyusha.
1 2 3 4 5 6 Takada, Akikazu (12 December 2007). 明日に希望をつなぐ 東洋のことば (in Japanese). Subarusya. もしあなたが心から愛する人、可愛がっている人がいたら、あなたがその人を愛せば愛すほど、その人との別れはつらいものとなります。[…]釈尊の言われることを信ずることで十分なのです。信じる生活を続けると、次第に変わっていきます。
1 2 Fuyuji, Dōmon (23 February 2008). 「情」と「知」のリーダーシップ 管理者のための二大成功原則 (in Japanese). PHP Institute. 敬して愛す、というのは、相手の知力を尊敬し、情力を愛するということだ。が、愛するというのはいろいろあって、特に、職場で、 「あの人は、愛すべき人物だ」 とか、 「憎めない人物だ」 とか言われる時は、やはり、この、「ちょっとバカにされる」要素が入っている。
1 2 Takaki, Yoshiko (23 July 2014). 第3章 向き合う. それでも人は生かされている 悲しみを乗り越えて勇気が生まれるとき (in Japanese). PHP Institute. p.85. 大切なのは、このような本能的なものまで十分にわきまえた上で、自分を守るように人を守ることなのです。自分を愛するように人を愛すことなのです。
1 2 Takashima, Dai (22 February 2017). 第２章 ● 人間関係に悩んだ時. もし、明日キミに会えないとしたら。 (in Japanese). PHP Institute. p.84. 嫌なところも、素敵じゃないところも、 魅力的じゃないところも含めて愛すのが 愛するということです。
1 2 Todaka, Kazushige, ed. (16 December 2018). 特攻 知られざる内幕 「海軍反省会」当事者たちの証言 (in Japanese). PHP Institute. 「俺たちは俺たちの親を、兄弟を、すべてを愛す、友人を愛す、同胞を愛するがゆえに彼らを安泰にするために自己を犠牲にせねばならん。祖国敗れれば親も同胞も安らかに生きていくことができんのだ。我らの屍によって祖国が勝てるならば満足ではないか」
1 2 Fujikawa, Yū (28 August 1941). 親鸞聖人の宗敎. 宗敎的內省. 富士川游著述選 (in Japanese). Vol.3. 中山文化硏究所. p.23. 第二の良馬は、影を見て御者の心を察しることは出來ない。御者の打つ鞭が體に觸つたとき、はじめて御者の心を察することが出來る。
↑ Yasuda, Zenjirō (May 2019) [10 September 1960]. 70年のあゆみ(PDF) (in Japanese). Japan Equine Affairs Association. p.120. 同時にこの両種類の馬につきましてお力を入れていただく方面、また私ども力を入れます方面に、あるいは軽種馬につきましては国以外の別個のもの、農業馬については農林省というように、責任分野と申しますか、努力をいたしまする分野を分けたらどうかというような考えも、一部にはある。
↑ Habu, Michihide (21 December 2012). 出世街道. 明智左馬助 光秀を最後まで支えた智勇兼備の将. PHP文庫 (in Japanese). PHP Institute. 「おめでとうございます。将軍家に近侍しておりましたならば、とてもこのような領主にはなれませなんだが、まずは、信長さまのお陰でござりまするな」
↑ Sakaki, Hidenobu (20 May 2016). 能力開発工学センターのフィロソフィー(PDF). JADECニュース (in Japanese). No.100. p.8. この十年の歩みを思いまするに、矢口先生を始めセンターの皆さんが成し遂げられた数々のユニークな研究開発の成果は見るべきものがあり、深く敬意の念を抱いています。
↑ Kōda, Rohan (10 December 1946). 骨董. 骨董 (in Japanese). Kōjimachi, Tokyo: Tokyo Shuppan. p.16. 勸業債劵は一枚買つて干圓も二千圓もになる事は有つても、掘出しなんといふことは先以て無かるべきことだ。
↑ Kimura, Shōshū (25 January 1949). 第五回 目のいろ〱. 常識百科 物知り先生『冬から春え』 (in Japanese). Suginami, Tokyo: 話の友社. p.76. その原因は今言うた八分の一秒の在留、手妻の種があると知ったら、何の不思議もなかるまい。
↑ Sakamoto, Omizan (5 May 2023). 旧支配者の復活. 小説家になろう (in Japanese). 入浴を終えた彼女はバーに向かった。二千円ちょっとのウィスキーが、眠っていた刹那に九十九年のヴィンテージものに化けているはずだ。その最初の一献を傾ける権利は、この苦労人に無かるまい。一年後に覚醒する仲間たちも諒してくれよう。
↑ Okazaki, Tsuguo (1 February 2022) [2021]. Vol.2 追憶[Vol.2 Recollections]. COSMO POLICE JUSTYCOSMO POLICE ジャスティ (in Japanese). Vol.4. Meguro, Tokyo: Goma Books. p.36. ――転入生を紹介する！わが校の編入試験をオール満点で突破した強者だ！良き友、良きライバルとして、あたたかくむかえいれてやってほしい。[――Let me introduce our new transfer student! He’s a warrior who broke through our school’s entrance exam with a perfect score! I’d like you all to give him a warm reception as a good friend and a good rival.]
↑ Miyake, Shūtarō (15 December 1951). 歌舞伎ノート (in Japanese). Chūō, Tokyo: Sogensha. pp.116, 134, 169. 幸四郞の重兵衞は、前記の如くノドを痛めてゐたため、氣勢が揚らず、よかるべき筈のこの役がもう一と息と見えたのは殘念である。[…]但し、そのよかるべきでゐてわるかつた藥師寺をあの時東亰でやつつけたのは、劇評家には殆どなかつたのに、北條秀司氏が獨り、あれは不良と書かれたのは實に敬服した。[…]よかるべき十五世羽左衞門すら、この權八はひどくて「きじも鳴かずば打たれまい」あたり、不器用丸出しだつた。
↑ Yanagita, Kunio (25 April 1962). 孤猿隨筆. 定本 柳田國男集 (in Japanese). Vol.22. Chiyoda, Tokyo: Chikumashobo. p.412. 二町ばかりの間崖の中途を切つて、見晴しのよかるべき處だが、大きな塔婆が二重三重に列なつて、隙見もできないほどの塀になつて居る。
↑ Dostoevsky, Fyodor Mikhailovich (17 April 2015). "Часть вторая" 第二編[Part Two]. Идіотъ白痴[The Idiot] (in Japanese). Vol.1. Translated by Nakayama, Shōzaburō. Gutenberg 21. Ты чего смеешься-то? Не веришь, атеист. А ты почем знаешь? Да и то соврал, если уж подслушал меня: я не просто за одну графиню Дюбарри молился; я причитал так: «Упокой, господи, душу великой грешницы графини Дюбарри и всех ей подобных», а уж это совсем другое; ибо много таковых грешниц великих, и образцов перемены фортуны, и вытерпевших, которые там теперь мятутся, и стонут, и ждут;貴様、何を笑っていやがるんだ？ 貴様にゃ信じられないんだな、不信仰ものめ。貴様にわかってたまるもんか！ それに本当にぬすみ聞きしたのなら、貴様は嘘をついている。おれはな、デュバルリ伯爵夫人ひとりのためにお祈りをあげたんじゃないんだ、『気高き罪びと、デュバルリ伯爵夫人と、それに同じきあまたの罪びとの魂に安息を垂れたまえ』と言ってお祈りしたんだぞ。これとあれじゃ、すっかり事情が違うからなあ。なぜって、そんな風なえらい罪びとや、運命の手ひどい変化に会った人や、不幸に苦しみぬいてきた人などが数多くあの世で、いまうめいたりして安息を待ちのぞんでいるんだぞ。[What the hell are ya laughin’ at? Ya believe nothin’, heathen! Ya don’t even get it straight, and if ya really did hear me right, that’s a lie yer tellin’! I didn’t pray for the Comtesse du Barry alone, I actually prayed, “May the Lord grant refuge to the souls of the Comtesse du Barry the noble sinner, and of countless sinners like herself.” That’s somethin’ else entirely. Because there are many such great sinners, those who met with brutal turns of fate, those who have suffered through misfortunes, they’re groanin’ now while awaitin’ refuge in the afterlife.]
↑ Yanagita, Kunio (25 February 1962). 女性と民間傳承. 定本 柳田國男集 (in Japanese). Vol.8. Chiyoda, Tokyo: Chikumashobo. p.359. 併し源の同じかるべき歌話が、是ほど弘く西東に分布したのは、到底或一人の根氣又は長命の爲でなかつたとすれば、何處かに中央の交換所の如きものが無ければなりません。
↑ Masuoka, Hiroyuki (26 February 1985). 第102回国会 参議院 社会労働委員会 第6号 昭和60年2月26日. 国会会議録検索システム (in Japanese). ただいまの数字は、現在の厚生年金、国民年金の財政状況のもとでは許容される数字だと思いますけれども、先ほどから申し上げておりますように高齢化社会を迎えるに従ってそちらの方の会計もだんだん苦しくなるわけでございますので、この件につきましては、ぜひとも必要に応じて、得べかるべき利益も含めて返してもらわなけりゃならぬということで大蔵省との合意も成立いたしておりますので、私はそのようにやれるし、また、やらなきゃならぬというふうに考えております。
↑ Hirose, Hikota, ed. (5 August 1944). 第一章 世界政策の爭覇と海上權力. 海軍要覽 (in Japanese). Shiba, Tokyo: Kaigun Yūshūkai. p.42. 元來政治と統帥との關係は相剋すべき對立關係ではなくて、兩者を統合する國策乃至戰爭指導方針の下に協力すること恰も左右の手の如かるべきものである。
↑ Ōnoki, Seiji (June 2012). ロータリー親睦考(PDF). Peace Through Service (in Japanese) (13). 独善的とのご批判は甘受しますが、毎年繰り返される恒例行事ですから、偶にはこのような前例踏襲に一石を投じる対処も、許されて如かるべきではないかと思うのであります｡
↑ Dumas, Alexandre (17 April 2015). "XXX La tour du Pilori" 第六十一章 晒しの塔[Chapter 61: The Tower of the Pillory]. La Reine Margot王妃マルゴ[Queen Margot] (in Japanese). Vol.2. Translated by Kashima, Shigeru. Gutenberg 21. La nuit venait de descendre sur la ville frémissante encore du bruit de ce supplice, dont les détails couraient de bouche en bouche assombrir dans chaque maison l'heure joyeuse du souper de famille.処刑の興奮さめやらぬパリの町に夜の帳がおりていった。処刑の模様は口から口へと伝えられ、楽しかるべき家族の食卓を暗くしていた。[The curtain of night had fallen upon the city of Paris, still reeling from the frenzy of the execution. Word of its development had been passed from mouth to mouth, casting a gloom over the otherwise joyous family supper.]
↑ Tolstoy, Leo (15 January 2016). "Част трета" 第三編[Part Three]. Война и миръ戦争と平和[War and Peace] (in Japanese). Vol.1. Translated by Kitagaki, Nobuyuki. Gutenberg 21. Толкова по-болезнено се свиваше сърцето на Николай, изтърпял напразно всичкия страх, който обзема човек пред сражение, и прекарал целия този весел ден в бездействие.それだけに、戦闘に先立つ恐怖にいたずらに悩んで、この楽しかるべき日を無為のうちにすごしてしまったニコライの胸は、なお一層締めつけられるような思いがした。[And Nicholas, who had vainly suffered all the dread that precedes a battle and had spent that otherwise joyful day in inactivity, felt as though his chest tightened even more.]
↑ Tezuka, Osamu (10 May 2000). ボンバ！[Bomba!]. 手塚治虫漫画全集 (in Japanese). Vol.93 (8thed.). Bunkyō, Tokyo: Kodansha. pp.79–80. ISBN4-06-108693-6. 先生……先生――っ！だれが殺した……だれが殺したんだ‼そいつは殺人犯だ おれが……復讐してやるぞ 先生をおしつぶしたやつら‼みんな死ね 死ね 死んじまえっ ボンバ‼やつらを殺せっ ひとリのこらず殺すんだ‼[Miss…… Miss Mizushima――! Who did it…… Who murdered her⁉ They’re murderers! I’ll…… make them pay! All you bastards that crushed her‼ Die, die, just die‼ Bomba‼ Kill them‼ All of them‼]
↑ Tezuka, Osamu (20 January 2000). ブラック・ジャック[Black Jack]. 手塚治虫漫画全集 (in Japanese). Vol.11 (8thed.). Bunkyō, Tokyo: Kodansha. pp.94–95. ISBN4-06-108761-4. うそです 先生はお金たくさんもらうからなおすんだ 先生 お金もらうだめ 手術やるだめ お願いです 先生 悪い人に味方するいけない あいつ助けないの‼ 金をもらうのがなぜ悪い？おおきなお世話だっ ケネス死ね 先生も死んじゃえ‼[You’re lying! You’re only treating him because he’s paying you a lot of money! Doctor, don’t take his money, don’t do the surgery, please! You can’t side with the bad guy! Don’t help him‼ What’s wrong with taking money? It’s none of your damn business! Drop dead, Kenneth! You die too, Doctor‼]
↑ Kin, Birei (1 March 2011). 13●やじうま精神を笑うなかれ[13●Don’t jeer at the voyeur’s spirit]. 凛とした生き方 自分の人生、自分で決める. PHP文庫 (in Japanese). PHP Institute. ISBN978-4-569-67602-9. 知的好奇心に無縁どころか、人間観察という知的訓練の恰好の機会になると思う。 ワイドショーをバカにするなかれ。「やじうま精神」を笑うなかれ、である。 もちろん、人の不幸を喜ぶようなあさましい気持ちで見るのなら、それこそ最低の「やじうま」だ。 社会に対する関心と問題意識を持って、ことの子細をもっと知りたいと思うかどうかが、ただの「やじうま」と「やじうま精神の持ち主」の違いなのだ。[In my opinion, far from having nothing to do with intellectual curiosity, such activity as observing people will be a great opportunity for intellectual traning. Don’t make fun of gossip shows. Don’t jeer at the “voyeur’s spirit”. Of course, if all you do is gawk at other people’s misfortune with sordid glee, you’re nothing but a contemptible “voyeur”. The difference between a mere “voyeur” and “one with the voyeur’s spirit” is whether or not you have an interest in and awareness of society, and you want to learn more about it.]
↑ Nakata, Atsuhiko (26 October 2019). 【論語と算盤②】成功に必要なのは常識と習慣！. YouTube (in Japanese). NAKATA UNIVERSITY. まずは「視」すべしと言われてるんですよ。「視」。何？どう見えるか。その人の外側を視よと、ね？外部及び、行動ですよね。外に現れてるもの。何をしてるのって、何をしてるの、その人っていう、どういうひと？どんなビジュアルで、どんな格好で、どんな風にみえる？外側をまず見てください。言うわけですね？
↑ 交通，運輸，郵便，信号. Current Bibliography on Science and Technology科学技術文献速報 (in Japanese). 5 (14). Japan Information Center of Science and Technology: 20. 25 October 1962. 四季を通じ，ハイウエイでは次の10箇条を守るべきである，①車にて殺人するなかれ．②ガソリンにアルコールを混合するな．③速度制限を守れ．④前の車にあまり近ずくな．⑤細い小路から小路へ渡り歩くな．⑥シグナルを見損なうな．⑦怒るなかれ．⑧運転者同士礼義正しくあれ．⑨歩行者と自転車に親切に．⑩交通法規を守れ．[The following are the 10 commandments to obey on the highway throughout the seasons: ① Thou shalt not kill by means of a vehicle. ② Thou shalt not mix alcohol with gasoline. ③ Obey the speed limit. ④ Thou shalt not get too close to the vehicle before thee. ⑤ Thou shalt not weave from one narrow lane to another. ⑥ Thou shalt not miss a signal. ⑦ Thou shalt not engage in road rage. ⑧ Show proper decorum to thy fellow drivers. ⑨ Be kind to pedestrians and cyclists. ⑩ Obey traffic law.]
↑ Takita, Hitoshi (15 July 2023). 三階席(PDF). 町議会だより おおなん (in Japanese) (85). Ōnan, Shimane: 4.
↑ Nakajima, Norihiro (25 March 1980). がくらん海峡 (in Japanese). Vol.3. Offce MAN.
1 2 Nagai, Tazuko (15 November 1948). 日記. In Nagai, Hisomu (ed.). 女の幸をしみ〲と思ふ (in Japanese). Chūō, Tokyo: Izumo Shobō. p.118. 强ければ、あくまでも强くあれ！ 弱ければ、飽くまでも弱くあれ！ 何事も、徹底しなくてはいけない。善いにしろ、惡いにしろ、何かを完了した人間の活き方は、美しい。 ひた向きな道をゆく人は、自分も樂しからうし、人も亦た、讓らずにはゐられない。
↑ Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm (14 August 2015). "Von alten und jungen Weiblein" 老いた女と若い女について[On Old and Young Women]. Also sprach Zarathustraツァラトゥストラはこう語った[Thus Spoke Zarathustra] (in Japanese). Translated by Takahashi, Kenji; Akiyama, Hideo. Gutenberg 21. Ein Spielzeug sei das Weib, rein und fein, dem Edelsteine gleich, bestrahlt von den Tugenden einer Welt, welche noch nicht da ist.女性はおもちゃであれ、清く美しくあれ。まだ存在しない世界の徳によって照らされた宝石にひとしくあれ！
↑ Suzuki, Toshio (2006). 労働分野の国際援助動向およびわが国の援助のあり方に関する調査研究報告(PDF). 労働政策研究報告書 (58). The Japan Institute for Labour Policy and Training: 25. 彼らは「経営者よ、強く正しかれ！」と使用者機能を前面に押し出した全国的組織である日本経営者団体連盟の結成を期していたが、東西対立が鮮明になる 1948 年 4 月 27 日まで、GHQ に労働運動中心の民主化政策にブレーキになると看做され、待ったを掛けられていた。
↑ Vol.12 主体性と愛と恋 (in Japanese). Tadano. 1 December 1997. 愛するとは、相手の運命を自分の運命と同じように考えることであり、自分の運命を相手に委ねてしまうこと、つまり自分の凡てを捧げても悔いないと決心することである。また、自分を良かれと思うのと同じ大きさで相手を良かれと願う心である。そして、相手に尽くしたい、喜ばせたいといつも考えている人であるともいえる。
↑ Yamasaki, Takeya (1 October 2006). ペットを猫かわいがりする. 〈感じ〉のいい人、悪い人 (in Japanese). PHP Institute.
↑ Mishima, Yukio (25 August 1974). 三島由紀夫レター敎室[Mishima Yukio’s Letter Classroom]. In Jun, Ishikawa; Kawabata, Yasunari; Nakamura, Mitsuo; Takeda, Taijun; Saeki, Shōichi; Keene, Donald Lawrence; Muramatsu, Takeshi; Tanaka, Miyoko (eds.). 三島由紀夫全集[The Complete Works of Mishima Yukio] (in Japanese). Vol.16. Shinjuku, Tokyo: Shinchosha. p.155. この世のことは、みんなブラウン管の中の幻だと思ひ込めれば、そしてベトナム戰爭でござれ、人殺しでござれ、あのちよつと手を觸れると懷爐ほどに熱い凸面ガラスよりこちらへは、絕對に飛び出してくることはないと知つてしまへば、人生を樂に生きられ、人生すべてがたのしみになつてしまふかもしれません。[If you could convince yourself that all life affairs are mere visions in the CRT, knowing full well that whatever they are, be they the Vietnam War or a homicide, won’t just come flying out at you from that convex glass screen that is as warm as a hand warmer if you touch it a little bit, you might just be able to live your life at ease and find joy in every facet of life.]
↑ Ōba, Yoshio (25 September 2011). 東南アジアの人間像と日本経営史の原像（二）(PDF). 北海学園大学学園論集 (in Japanese) (149): 31. ISSN0385-7271. カチン人全般がそうであるように，ジンポー族も歓待の心をとても大切にする。友人だけでなく，人種や宗教に関係なく見知らぬ人のおもてなしを拒まない。また，末の男子が本家筋を継いで村に留まる。兄たちは仲間たちと一緒に，遠かれ近かれ，村を離れて新たな土地で生活をする。こうした風習や，人口増加，移動耕作に伴い，何世紀もかけてジンポー族は徐々に南方へ移動してきた。
↑ Nomura, Araebisu (5 September 1955). ベートーヴェンの生涯[The Life of Beethoven]. 紙上音樂會 レコードの選び方[Concerts on Paper: How to Choose Records] (in Japanese). Chiyoda, Tokyo: Ongaku no Tomo Sha. p.111. 雨よ降れ、風も吹け、ウィーンの郊外を、お天氣構はずに彷徨したベートーヴェンは、その負けじ魂を至人達人の境地までひた押しに押しあげて居たのである。[Come rain or wind, as Beethoven roamed the outskirts of Vienna without a care about the weather, he pushed his indomitable spirit to the absolute heights of a virtuoso.]
↑ Abe, Seiya (2025). "The classification and division of Japanese dialects". Handbook of Japanese Dialects. Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics. Vol.7. De Gruyter Mouton. pp.20, 32. ISBN978-1-5015-0841-7.
↑ 見ろ(PDF). 方言文法全国地図PDF版ダウンロード (in Japanese). National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics. February 2021.
↑ 起きろ(PDF). 方言文法全国地図PDF版ダウンロード (in Japanese). National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics. February 2021.
↑ 開けろ(PDF). 方言文法全国地図PDF版ダウンロード (in Japanese). National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics. February 2021.
↑ 来い(PDF). 方言文法全国地図PDF版ダウンロード (in Japanese). National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics. February 2021.
↑ 寝よう(PDF). 方言文法全国地図PDF版ダウンロード (in Japanese). National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics. February 2021.
↑ 起きよう(PDF). 方言文法全国地図PDF版ダウンロード (in Japanese). National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics. February 2021.
↑ 開けよう(PDF). 方言文法全国地図PDF版ダウンロード (in Japanese). National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics. February 2021.
↑ 来よう(PDF). 方言文法全国地図PDF版ダウンロード (in Japanese). National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics. February 2021.
↑ 昭代女子國文敎授要領. Vol.2 (reviseded.). Kōfūkan. 4 September 1934. p.38. 【倉を開けよよ】「開けよ」は動詞「開く」の命令形、その下の「よ」は親しみを以て附したもの。
↑ Ōtsuka, Yūichi (2025). "A Study on How to Discuss Virtue and Vice in Business: On its difficulty" ビジネスにおける徳と悪徳の論じ方 —その難しさをめぐって—(PDF). 就実経営研究 (in Japanese). 10: 53. 徳や悪徳という言葉はビジネス社会の中に自然に溶け込んでいる。それにも関わらず、いざ徳のある企業を具体的に列挙せよ、徳に適う企業実践の実例を列挙せよと問われてみると、これに答えることが容易ではないことに気がつく。[The words virtue and vice are naturally integrated into the business world. Nevertheless, when asked to list specific examples of virtuous companies or examples of virtuous corporate practices, we find that it is not easy to answer.]
↑ Kaizu, Tadao (May 1970). ""Imagines mortis" in Dürer and Holbein" 「死の像」におけるデューラーとホルバイン. Journal of Arts and Letters藝文研究 (in Japanese). 29. 慶應義塾大学藝文学会: 56–57. 何物もこの世の死から救ってくれない。だから、いつも神に従ってあれ。[...]このおん方はお前に永遠の生命をお授け下さろう。[...]天の仲間のところへお連れ下さろう。
↑ Nakamura, Keishi (2015). 信じない人のための＜宗教＞講義(PDF) (doctoral thesis) (in Japanese). Kokushikan University Library and Information Commons. p.4. つまり、たとえば｢仏教とは要するにこんなものだよ」と過度に単純化してみせる一方で、「でも、私の説明を鵜呑みにしないで、自分で調べてみてください」といった感じて、つまり「我を信じよ」「我を信じるな」という両面から提示していくのです。[...]結局、「我を信じよ」「我を信じるな」の両面作戦で行くのがよいのではないかと思うのです。
↑ Motojima, Eizō (25 June 1924). 聖德太子の御憲法. 小學国史物語 (in Japanese). Hongō, Tokyo: Shogakukan. p.83. 聖德太子は、用明天皇の皇子でゐらつしゃいます。衆に勝れたお方で、傳ふるところに依りますと、お生れになつて間もなく、 『南無！』 と、ハツキリ仰せになつたとか。太子は非常に佛敎をお信じになり、 『信じれば、心は正しく、幸福な生涯を送る事が出來る。人は誰でも佛を信ぜよ。』
↑ Strindberg, Johan August (20 January 1939). 第三幕. Fadren父. 岩波文庫 (in Japanese). Vol.62. Translated by Komiya, Toyotaka (12thed.). Kanda, Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. p.93. 大尉 なんにも！。決してなんにも分りはしない、唯信じるきりなんだ、さうぢやないか、ヨーナス？。信ぜよ、さらば幸あらん！。幸？‥‥。いや、俺は知つてゐる、人は信じて不幸にもなり得るものだ！。それを俺は知つてゐる！。
↑ Yagi, Toshio (1969). 『緋文字』論序説(PDF). 成城文藝 (in Japanese) (55): 61. Never trust the artist. Trust the tale. The proper function of a critic is to save the tale from the artist [...] saving the American tale from the American artist.「作家を信じるな。作品を信ぜよ。批評家の正当な仕事は......作家から作品を救出することだ。......アメリカ作家からアメリカ小説を救出することだ」
↑ Takagi, Narahide (1978). ロレンス随想(II) 『虹』——dualism の彼方に——(PDF). 成城文藝 (in Japanese) (84): 5. 決して芸術家を信じるな、物語を信ぜよ。批評家の正当な機能は、物語を創造する芸術家から、物語を救い出すことである[Never trust the artist. Trust the tale. The proper function of a critic is to save the tale from the artist who created it.]
↑ Nomura, Makoto (2011). ウェスレーと地震(PDF). ウェスレー・メソジスト研究 (in Japanese) (12): 70. Repent and believe the gospel. Believe on the Lord Jesus, and ye shall yet be saved「悔い改めて福音を信ぜよ。主イエスを信じるならばあなたは救われるだろう。」
1 2 Koizumi, Tōzō (20 February 1944). 二、四段活用化の傾向に就いて. 日本語文の性格 (in Japanese). Kamigyō, Kyoto: Ritsumei Shuppanbu. pp.38–46.
1 2 Tsukahara, Jūshien (7 January 1910). 澁柿叢書 (in Japanese). Nihonbashi, Tokyo: Hakubunkan. pp.266, 288, 688. 恁う歎息いて居たのが、此の半月以來、その粮無しの米の飯ちふを病母に進ぜることが出來た。[...]又た其外に十枚を進ぜろ。[...]『此れを脇へて下さらば、刀を進ずる。御身が所望の鄕を進ずる。其外家內に有りと有る物品、殘らず進ずる。』
↑ Watanabe, Mokuzen (6 June 1918). ｟四｠まごころ. 鶴子姬 (in Japanese). Minami, Osaka: Higuchi Ryū Bunkan. pp.19–20. 山や畑を叩き賣つて返して進ぜるのになア、[...]何とかしてお二人さアを舊の身にして進ぜろ。
↑ Soganoya, Gorohachi (25 November 1918). 茶音頭. 曾我迺家喜劇集 (in Japanese). Shitaya, Tokyo: 南人社. p.229. 熱い飯でも焚かして進ぜよ。二三日ゆつくり、逗留して、たとへ百の小遣ひでも、持たしてこなたを立たして進ぜる。
↑ Tatsuno, Yutaka (23 May 1934). てんかん. 随筆集 ドンク (in Japanese). Chūō Kōronsha. p.146. ——誰か巡査を呼んで來て吳れよ。
↑ Natsume, Sōseki (10 August 1936). 門 彼岸過迄. 漱石全集 (in Japanese). Vol.6. Kanda, Tokyo: 漱石全集刊行會. pp.109, 553, 637. 「おい是を一寸其所へ置いて吳れ」[...]是からは後生だから叔母さんに免じて、あぶない惡承山戲は止して御吳れよ[...]母は千代子の生れた時吳れろと賴んで置いたのだから貰つたら可いだらうと云つて僕を驚ろかした。
↑ Miyoshi, Jūrō (1 July 1968). 妻恋行. 三好十郎の仕事 (in Japanese). Vol.1. 私、もう帰るから、自動車賃くれろ。[...]......あんたも、もう帰つてくれろ。[...]帰つてくれろ？[...]あんたあお先い帰つてくれろ。[...]そして抵当なしでドンドン金貸してくれ。[...]なあ君、君は紙芝居であるけれどもが、君が辺見甚次君だろ、アハハハそんねな事、どうでもええわい、さ、ハーモニカ吹いちくれ！[...]見てやつちくれ。
↑ de Beaumarchais, Pierre-Augustin Caron (25 December 1952). The Marriage of Figaroフィガロの結婚 (in Japanese). Translated by Tatsuno, Yutaka. Hakusuisha. p.25, 52, 224. シェリュバン お夜伽のリボンだつて！ 私にお吳れよ、いい娘だからさ！[...]フィガロ つまり、殿樣の御守中にお前の所にシェリュバンを寄越すから、娘風に髪を結つて衣物を被せてやつて吳れ。[...]フィガロ どうして吳れろ、と！
↑ Tanizaki, Jun'ichirō (20 June 1970) [10 May 1969]. 二十四. 細雪[Light Snow] (in Japanese). Vol.1 (2nded.). Shinjuku, Tokyo: Obunsha. p.205. 十一月になって、貞之助は仕事のことで二三日東京へ行く用ができたので、始めて渋谷の本家を訪ねたが、子供たちはもうすっかり新しい生活に馴れ、東京弁も上手になり、家庭と学校とで言葉の使い分けをするほどになっていて、辰雄夫婦も雪子も機嫌をよくしてい、狭い所で窮屈だけれどもぜひ泊まって行ってくれろと、皆がすゝめるのであった。
↑ Frost, Robert Lee (1991). "Home Burial" 家葬(PDF). 親和女子大学英語英文学 (in Japanese) (11). Translated by Matsuda, Seishi: 41–43, 45. [...]'What is it you see From up there always—for I want to know.' [...] 'I will find out now—you must tell me, dear.' [...] 'Amy! Don't go to someone else this time. Listen to me. I won't come down the stairs.' [...] 'Help me, then.'[...]「何を見てるんだい、 いつもそこで。教えてくれよ」 [...] 「探り出してみせるぞ——教えてくれよ、なあ、お前」 [...] 「エイミー、今度はよその人の所へ行かんで、 俺の話を聞いてくれ。ここから俺はおりないぞ」 [...] 「じゃあ、教えてくれよ」
↑ Shirogane, Hisanori (2010). アダム・スミスの方法：A Touch of Adam Smith(PDF). 経済学雑誌 別冊 (in Japanese). 111 (2): 8. ｢自分自身を愛するように他人を愛せ｣というキリスト教の倫理を転倒させ，｢他人を愛するように（同じことだが，他人が自分を愛するのと同程度で）自分自身を愛せ」
↑ Okamoto, Rikichi (15 August 1936). 第二十五章 慈善と同情. 純愛篇. 人間理學講話 (in Japanese). Vol.4. Tsuzuki, Kanagawa: 美愛郷純真社. p.254. 支那人よ、支那を愛し、印度人よ、印度を愛し、英吉利人よ、英吉利を愛し、獨逸人よ、獨逸を愛しろ。我等わ祖國日本を愛する。
↑ マルコによる福音書[The Gospel according to Mark]. Holy Bible聖書 (in Japanese). Chūō, Tokyo: Japan Bible Society. 1955. p.73. 第二はこれである、『自分を愛するようにあなたの隣り人を愛せよ』。
↑ Mitamura, Engyo (30 November 1933). 直木三十五の『南國太平記』. 大衆文藝評判記 (in Japanese). Kōjimachi, Tokyo: Hanbunsha. p.165. けれどもそれを橫目を以て達するといふことも非常に輕率なことのやうに見える。[...]町奉行から直に御長屋を立退けといふことを達しろ、とでもいふことなんでせうか。
↑ 第五 各科學習上改善努力すべき點. 改善を企圖せる我校經營方針 (in Japanese). 香川縣高松市鶴屋町尋常小學校. 1 October 1928. pp.44–45. 1、唱歌敎授の眞の目的を達せよ。[...]前者は只其の目的を達する手段に過ぎないのである。
↑ Suzuki, Shūji (October 1958). "Disguises in Shakespeare's comedies" シェクスピア喜劇に於ける扮装(PDF). Journal of Arts and Letters藝文研究 (in Japanese). 8. 慶應義塾大学藝文学会: 88. Orlando. Fair youth, I would I could make thee believe I love. Rosalind. Me believe it! you may as soon make her that you love believe it; which I warrant she is apter to do than to confess she does;オーランド ねえ君、僕が戀してることを、ほんとに君に信じてもらいたいよ。 ロザリンド 僕に信じろ、つてかい。いつそ君の好きだという人に信じてもらう方が早いよ。保證するけれど、その女は口ではそう言わなくても、案外はやく信ずるものだよ。
↑ Koizumi, Yakumo (20 June 1950). あたりまえのこと. 小泉八雲代表作集 耳なし芳一. 日本童話小說文庫 (in Japanese). Vol.11. Translated by Sangū, Makoto. Komine Shoten. p.152. その坊さんはいろんな古風な信仰のよくないことを說き聞かせ、予言や夢を信ずることに反対して、もっぱら佛陀の敎えを信ぜよと說く人ですが、檀家からは非常に親しまれています。
↑ Yada, Sōun (11 February 1943). 三十五 順逆論に傾聴す. 太閤記外傳 竹中半兵衞 (in Japanese). Kanda, Tokyo: 天祐書房. p.223. えゝ、まゝよ、計略があらばあれ、無くば無かれ、こつちは擊つだけの事よと、『鐵砲擊ちかゝれ——』と號令した。
↑ 今、この時に想う疑問と覚悟. Ever Green Home Group (in Japanese). 一つ。 茅ヶ崎の話。今年の浜降祭は、東北のことを考慮し、甚句や鈴鳴らしを自粛し、なるべく静かに行うのであるという。そもそも祭りとは何だ？実りに感謝し、災い無かれと祈る、それが祭りであろう？意気揚々とし、未来を活気づけ、発展へとつなげるものである。それをどうして東北を考慮する？第一、東北の人がこれを聞いたら、むしろ申し訳ないと思うのではないか？
↑ Ukita, Yōko. 第八章 五雲国へ. 虹霓国の女東宮 (in Japanese). 小説家になろう. 「それでは呪物だろう。人を呪わば穴二つ。命には命で贖う。護符は祈りだ。幸多かれと、災い無かれと願うものだ。想いを込める故、命までも注ぎ込む者が無いとは言わぬが、大抵は善き物だよ。五雲国で縁起が良いと言われているものは無いか？それに寄せよう」
↑ Satō, Ichiei (13 October 1922). 「晴天詩集」の序文として. 晴天 (in Japanese). Naka, Nagoya, Aichi: 江崎正文堂. p.4. 『私も「そんな男に出來てゐる」のです。』といふ君は、果してどの意味で天上を夢みる人なのであらう。願はくば私自身の如くでは無くあれ。君自身が私に就いて言つたごとく『海底の魚が上層の水に漂ふ光を慕ひ仰ぐ』やうであれ私自身に就いて言へば私はただ淺い泥溝にゐる水蟲が喘ぎ喘ぎ水に浮んだ星影にしたひ寄るやうな者にすぎまい。
↑ Onchi, Kōshirō (25 October 1942). 何にもならない感想. 美術隨筆 工房雜記 (in Japanese). Kanda, Tokyo: 興風館. p.300. 芭蕉西行の時代は昔のことだ。私の肉體のなかには鐵の齒車がギリギリ廻つてゐる。われわれの文明は、自然をまで支配する。憂ひなくあれといのつた聖者の憂ひは、もはやその無機的社會に何の力もない。[The times of Bashō and Saigyō are long gone. The iron cogs within my fleshy body are gnashingly turning. Our civilization has mere dominion over nature. The sorrow of the sages, who prayed for none, no longer has power over this inorganic society.]
↑ Mizoguchi, Hiroe (22 August 2004). 離婚、失明の危機...思い通りにいかないのが人生！ 40代で写真家を目指した女性. All About 旅行 (in Japanese). 時が経過するにつれ、心の中にわだかまっていたエネルギーが動き始めたのが自分でもわかりました。他に対して良くあれと願うのは、自分に対して同じことをしているのだということを、実感できたんです。
↑ Takanashi, Yoshiaki (13 April 2023). ゴルフクラブよ、美しく、やさしく、かっこ良くあれ。フォーティーンの14本が紡ぐ、ゴルフのストーリー。[Let Golf Clubs Be Beautiful, Graceful and Stylish. A Golf Story Woven by 14 Fourteen Clubs.]. ALBA Net Golf (in Japanese).
↑ Banno et al. (2020b), pp.234–235, "Lesson 22, Grammar 4: 〜ば". sfnp error: no target: CITEREFBanno_et_al.2020b (help)
↑ Makino & Tsutsui (1989), pp.81–83, "Main Entries: ba ば". sfnp error: no target: CITEREFMakino_&_Tsutsui1989 (help)
↑ Vance, Timothy J. (1987). "Chapter 4: Consonants". An Introduction to Japanese Phonology. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. p.31. ISBN978-0-88706-360-2.
↑ Martin (2004), p.372, 555–564. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFMartin2004 (help)
↑ Martin (2004), pp.167–172, 523–524. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFMartin2004 (help)
↑ Namba, Kunihiko; Ida, Tamio; Fuchihata, Manabu; Sano, Hiroshi (19 September 2005). "Combustion Characteristics of Woody Bio-pellets" 木質バイオペレットの燃焼特性. 年次大会講演論文集 (in Japanese). Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers: 264. 炉内温度が高いほどＢＰに入る熱量が多く熱分解速度が増し揮発分の単位時間当たりの放出量が多くなり，可燃濃度に速く達するためであるが，粒子サイズの影響が極めて小さいことから，表面部の熱分解が進み，可燃濃度に達すれば着火することが予想される．
↑ Horie, Yasuzō (20 February 1937). 二 土地政策. アメリカ經濟史槪說 (in Japanese). Kanda, Tokyo: Yūhikaku. pp.88–89. （二）州設立豫定區域の男子人口が五千に達するまでは、中央政府より知事及裁判官を派して統治すること、[…]（四）各區の人口が六萬に達せば、自ら憲法を制定し政府を組織し、且つ獨立十三州と同一資格の代表者を議會に送り得ること、これである。
↑ 第二編 鳥取市の沿革. 鳥取市史 (in Japanese). Tottori: 鳥取市役所. 7 August 1943. p.542. 汝等は年尙若きを以つて之を勉むれば自然好樂の境に達するを得ん。已に此域に達せば聲色嗜好凡百の心を蕩かす物は以つて心を動かすに足らないと。
↑ Merezhkovsky, Dmitry Sergeyevich (25 February 1955). "Двенадцатая книга Или Цезарь — или ничто" 第十二編 皇帝か然らずんば無か[Book XII: Caesar or Nil]. Воскресшие боги. Леонардо да Винчи神々の復活 ―レオナルド・ダ・ヸンチ―[Resurrection of the Gods: Leonardo da Vinci]. 岩波文庫 (in Japanese). Vol.3. Translated by Yonekawa, Masao (6thed.). Chiyoda, Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. pp.209, 214. Достигнув речки Мизы, дорога круто заворачивала влево. Здесь был мост, построенный наискось через реку, и против него городские ворота. […] - Предательстве? - остановил его Макиавелли. - Когда дело, мессере, идет о спасении отечества, не может быть речи о предательстве и верности, о зле и добре, о милосердии и жестокости, - но все средства равны, только бы цель была достигнута.道路はミザ川に達すると、急に左へ曲つて、こゝには一つの橋が斜ひに川に懸かつてゐてその眞向ひが町の城門であつた。[…] 「裏切りですつて？」とマキアヹリが遮つた。「だつて、事が國家の死活にかゝはるやうな場合、裏切りだの誠實だの、善だの惡だの、慈悲だの慘酷だのといふ事は、ぜん〱問題にならないぢやありませんか。方法はどうあらうと同じです、たゞ目的さへ達しればいゝんですよ。」[Upon reaching the Misa, the road turned sharply to the left; here, a bridge slanted across the river, directly opposite the gates to the town. […] “Betrayal?” interrupted Machiavelli. “When it is a matter of the nation’s survival, there must be no question of betrayal or loyalty, of good or evil, of clemency or cruelty. All means are alike, provided the end is met.”]
↑ Hori, Hidehiko (30 March 1950). ２ 近代人に課せられた問題. 近代を切りひらいた人々 (in Japanese). Chiyoda, Tokyo: Sanseidō. p.32. 私たちが科学を信ずれば宗敎を信ずることができず、反対に素朴な心持で宗敎を信ずれば、科学を信ずることもできないでしょう。
↑ Ui, Hakuju (28 February 1962). 第六章 日本佛敎の佛陀觀. 佛敎汎論 (in Japanese). Chiyoda, Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. p.80. 唯聞くのみでも之を信ずればよいともいへる。從つて、又、念佛は往生の爲のものでなくして、信ずる時に已に救はれて居るから報恩の爲のものとなす說ともなるのである。
↑ Rabelais, François (20 August 1975) [18 March 1974]. 第一四章 パニュルジュの見た夢と、当人の解釈. Tiers liure des fɑictz et dictz Heroïques du noble Pɑntɑgruel第三之書 パンタグリュエル物語[The Third Book: The Tales of Pantagruel]. 岩波文庫 (in Japanese). Vol.3. Translated by Watanabe, Kazuo (3rded.). Chiyoda, Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. p.100. 何しろ、修辞学のいわゆる転換法というものを用いませば、そうしたことにもなるわけでございますよ。
↑ Satow, Ernest Mason (1873). "Paradigms". Kuaiwa Hen, Twenty-Five Exercises in the Yedo Colloquial, for the Students. With Notes. Vol.Part II. Notes. Yokohama: Lane, Crawford & Co. pp.170–188.
↑ Uchida, Jōichirō (20 October 1943). 捨身でなくちや出來ん. 水雷部隊. 新日本國民選書 (in Japanese). Nihonbashi, Tokyo: Tsurushobō. p.156. 「左様でございますでございます。[…]」
↑ Koizumi, Yasushi (10 May 1949). 藤吉郞出現. 少年太閤記 (in Japanese). Vol.2. Shibuya, Tokyo: 光書房. p.176. 『[…]いいえさ、川島のお殿さまなら、できようと、へい、おそれながら思いまするで、ございますでございます』
↑ みんなでパーティー. NHK for School (in Japanese). 「あぁ～、妹さんの！ わたくしもちょうどふるさとの星（ほし）にかえってたんでございますでございますよ～」。[…]「これは『ブルーだいこん』でございますでございます」と青いだいこんを見せました。ほかにも見たことないようなものがいっぱいです。するとピエールさんが、「そうだ！ よかったらみなさんでたべませんか」[…]「おまたせいたしました！ こちらが本日のメインりょうり、ブタムカデの丸（まる）やきでございますでございますよ～！」。
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