Japanese conjugation , like the conjugation of verbs of many other languages, allows verbs to be morphologically modified to change their meaning or grammatical function. In Japanese, the beginning of a word (the stem ) is preserved during conjugation, while the ending of the word is altered in some way to change the meaning (this is the inflectional suffix ). Japanese verb conjugations are independent of person, number and gender (they do not depend on whether the subject is I, you, he, she, we, etc.); the conjugated forms can express meanings such as negation, present and past tense, volition, passive voice, causation, imperative and conditional mood, and ability. There are also special forms for conjunction with other verbs, and for combination with particles for additional meanings.
Japanese verbs have agglutinating properties: some of the conjugated forms are themselves conjugable verbs (or i-adjectives), which can result in several suffixes being strung together in a single verb form to express a combination of meanings.
Conjugable words (verbs, i‑adjectives, and na‑adjectives) are traditionally considered to have six possible conjugational stems or bases ( 活用形 , katsuyōkei; literally "conjugation forms"). [1] This article lists those from the negative base (未然形, mizenkei), as well as the tentative base (推量形/意思形, suiryōkei/ishikei) that was split off during the post‑WWII spelling reforms. [2]
The negative form is broadly equivalent to the English word "not". [3]
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| I don't drink alcohol. | osake wa nomanai (お酒は飲まない) | assumption to continue inaction |
| I won't brush my teeth. | ha o migakanai (歯を磨かない) | immediate inaction |
| I won't work tomorrow. | ashita hatarakanai (明日働かない) | future inaction |
The negative form is created by using the mizenkei base, followed by the ‑nai (ない) suffix. This auxiliary arose in eastern dialects during Late Middle Japanese and displaced the western ‑n (see below) in standard Japanese, and while having been linked to another negative auxilary, ‑nau → ‑nō (なふ), it appears to be a grammaticalized version of the adjective nai (無い; 'be nonexistent'). [4] It is possible to have a double negative, as in shizuka ja naku nai n da ga (静かじゃなくないんだが; transl. it's not not (=it is) quiet all right, but), hanashitaku naku nai kedo (話したくなくないけど; transl. I don't not want (=I do want) to talk, but), ippan no dokusha ni totte tashō wakarinikui ten mo naku wa nai (一般の読者に取って多少分かりにくい点もなくはない; transl. there are not not (=there are) points that, for the general reader, are hard to understand), etc. [5]
The regular negative of aru would be aranai, but it is very rarely used, for example in Honma ni uso de wa aranai to yū no ja na (本間に嘘ではあらないというのじゃな), [6] Tosa to te oni no kuni de mo hebi no kuni de mo aranai mono o (土佐とて鬼の国でも蛇の国でもあらないものを), etc. [7] [8] In Murakami Haruki's 2017 novel Killing Commendatore , the character "Commendatore", who is characterized as having "an odd way of speaking" that is "not the way ordinary people would speak", [9] often, but not always, uses aranai in place of nai.
‑N (karan (狩らん; 'not hunt')) is a negative auxiliary that was reduced from the earlier western [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] and classical ‑nu (karanu (狩らぬ)), but was largely displaced by the eastern ‑nai (karanai (狩らない)) in standard Japanese. [16] [17] ‑N(u) is still found in modern Japanese and thought of as "shortened" from ‑nai, although as the fact that shin(u) (しん・しぬ) is strictly dialectal compared to the standard sen(u) (せん・せぬ) shows, [6] it is not really a "short" form. Some modern examples include tokoro ga, henji o yokosan no desu (ところが、返事を寄越さんのです; 'but they sent me no reply'), Boku wa benkai sen desu. Tada iwan koto o kakaretara komaru. (僕は弁解せんです。ただ言わん事を書かれたら困る; 'I don't make excuses. It's just that it is embarrassing to have things written as if I had said them when I haven't.'), sen de kudasai (せんでください; 'don't do it'). [6] ‑N(u)'s conjunctive form, ‑zu, is still used in writing. Ja nai (no) ka (じゃない(の)か; 'isn't it?') is indeed shortened to jan (じゃん) especially by young people. [18] ‑Nai and ‑nu can be used in the same sentence where ‑nai is treated as conclusive and ‑nu as attributive: Gaikōken o motanu Okinawa wa Amerika to kōshō suru koto mo dekinai (外交権を持たぬ沖縄はアメリカと交渉することもできない; 'Okinawa, which does not have diplomatic power, cannot negotiate with America'). [19]
The current negative of ‑masu is ‑masen. The unique shapes of ‑masen (rather than ‑mashinai) and the volitional ‑mashō (rather than *‑mashiyō) suggest their provenance in western polite speech. [20] Compare westernized hyper-polite adjectival expressions with gozaimasu. The easternized ‑mashinai was first recorded in its spoken form with vowel fusion as ‑mashinē in Edo Japanese. [21] It has been attested in dialog from modern literature, for example in the speech of underclass, poor, peasant, servile or rural characters, even non-Japanese ones, notably the eye dialect of black slaves from the novel Gone with the Wind . [22] The practice of using the stigmatized "unsophisticated" Tōhoku Japanese, [a] in which ‑mashinai and ‑mashinē figure, to translate the stereotypical speech of black Southern Americans, has become unpopular. [25] The use of a low-class pseudo-dialect has been claimed to contribute to the churlish stereotype of Tōhoku Japanese, [25] although it has also been argued that such use is increasingly perceived as mere fictional rural speech without necessarily any association with real-life dialects. [24]
‑N also happens to be a reduced form of ‑mu (karamu (狩らむ; 'let's hunt; probably hunt')), whose other reduced form, ‑u, is still used to make volitional forms (karō (狩ろう)). [16] ‑Nu also happens to be an archaic perfective auxiliary, with a different conjugation from the negative ‑nu; it is equivalent to ‑ta/‑da in modern Japanese, [26] and it is sometimes used elevatedly, as in Kaze to Tomo ni Sarinu (=Satta) (風と共に去りぬ; 'Gone with the Wind').
The godan and ichidan-based negative endings ‑ranai, ‑rinai or ‑renai, specifically with the consonant r, can be reduced to ‑nnai and even ‑nnē in speech, as in wakaranai → wakannai (分かんない), naranai → nannē (なんねえ), kurenai → kunnai (呉んない). [27]
The expressions sumanai/suman/sumimasen (すまない・すまん・すみません; 'I'm sorry', lit. 'it isn't over') comes from a special use of the subsidiary verb sumu (済む; 'be over') (see te form: Grammatical compatibility for examples).
The godan verb shiru (知る), whose kanji represents the Chinese word for "know", is often translated as "know", but a more accurate translation would be "learn", "find out", [28] or "get to know". [29] [30] In order to say "I know", the construction shitte( i)ru (知って(い)る) is used instead [29] [28] (see te form: Grammatical compatibility for the usage of ‑te iru). This is because shiru is imbued with active recognization, which relates to the archaic meaning of taking physical command or possession of somebody or something, [31] reflected by the spellings 治る with the kanji for the Chinese word for "rule", "govern" or "control", and 領る for "lead". [32] To "know", therefore, is to take psychological command or possession of outside information, hence shiru ("I take command of this information"), and maintain it, hence shitte iru ("I took command of this information and it's still in my knowledge"). While "I know" ("I take command of it and still have it") is shitte iru, "I don't know" is actually shiranai (知らない; "I don't take command of it"), [33] which is morphologically the negative of shiru, but semantically the negative of both shitte iru and shiru. On the other hand, shitte inai (知っていない; "I didn't take command of it and still don't have it") implies perpetuation of ignorance, [34] for example in Ningen ga naze hito o korosu no ka […] sono konponteki na riyū ni tsuite, watashitachi wa mada nani mo shitte inai, to omowareru kara de aru (人間がなぜ人を殺すか[…]その根本的な理由について、私たちはまだ何も知っていない、と思われるからである; transl. Why does a human being kill another person? […] it seems that we still remain ignorant of the basic reasons for that). [35] There have been analyses on precise cases where shitte inai is interchangeable with or even preferable to shiranai, for example when paired with shitte iru in the same clause, [36] as in Doitsu-go o shitte ite mo shiranakute mo / shitte inakute mo saiyō shiken ni wa kankei nai. (ドイツ語を知っていても知らなくても・知っていなくても採用試験には関係ない。; transl. Whether you know German or not has nothing to do with the employment test.); or in cases involving the perfect aspect, only shitte inai, not shiranai, can be used, as in Shinbun o yomu made ni, Tarō wa jiken no shinsō o shitte inai. (新聞を読むまでに、太郎は事件の真相を知っていない。; transl. By the time he reads the newspaper, Tarō won't have learnt of the incident.), Tarō wa ima made ichido mo jibun no genkai o shitte inai. (太郎は今まで一度も自分の限界を知っていない。; transl. Tarō hasn't learnt of his own limitations, even once until now.) [37] Nevertheless, the question remains as to why shiranai is uniquely more common than shitte inai as the negative of shitte iru to begin with, a phenomenon not yet observable in other verbs. [38] A recorded conversation with a young child shows that shiranai is not inherently intuitive in and of itself: when his father asked him a question with papa […] shiranai ("I don't know […]"), he mirrored his prompt with shiranai ("I don't know"); yet, when his father asked him with shitteru deshō ("you know, don't you?"), he erroneously responded with *shitteru nai ("I don't know", or more "accurately", shittenai, though the expected response was still shiranai). [39] In western dialects, there are shitte oru → shittoru (知っておる→知っとる; ≈ shitte iru → shitteru), shitte oran → shittoran (知っておらん [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] →知っとらん [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] ; ≈ shitte inai → shittenai), shitte oranu → shittoranu (知っておらぬ [52] [53] [54] →知っとらぬ [55] ), and shiran (知らん; ≈ shiranai).
| Dictionary form | Pattern [56] | Negative form | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Godan verbs | ||||
| 結う(yuu, fasten) | 結う | 結わ | ない ん ぬ ず | 結わない(yuwanai, not fasten) 結わん(yuwan) 結わぬ(yuwanu) 結わず(yuwazu) |
| 言う(yū, say) | ゆう | いわ ゆわ | ない ん ぬ ず | 言わない (iwanai/yuwanai, not say) 言わん (iwan/yuwan) 言わぬ (iwanu/yuwanu) 言わず (iwazu/yuwazu) |
| 勝つ (katsu, win) | 勝つ | 勝た | ない ん ぬ ず | 勝たない (katanai, not win) 勝たん (katan) 勝たぬ (katanu) 勝たず (katazu) |
| 狩る (karu, hunt) | 狩る | 狩ら | ない ん ぬ ず | 狩らない (karanai, not hunt) 狩らん (karan) 狩らぬ (karanu) 狩らず (karazu) |
| 知る (shiru, find out) | 知る | 知ら | ない ん ぬ ず | 知らない (shiranai, not find out / have not found out) 知らん (shiran) [57] [58] [59] [60] [42] [61] [44] [48] 知らぬ (shiranu) [57] [61] 知らず (shirazu) [62] |
| 貸す (kasu, lend) | 貸す | 貸さ | ない ん ぬ ず | 貸さない (kasanai, not lend) 貸さん (kasan) 貸さぬ (kasanu) 貸さず (kasazu) |
| 愛す (aisu, love) | 愛す | 愛さ | ない ん ぬ ず | 愛さない (aisanai, not love) [63] 愛さん (aisan) 愛さぬ (aisanu) [64] [65] 愛さず (aisazu) [66] |
| 達す (tassu, reach) | 達す | 達さ | ない ん ぬ ず | 達さない (tassanai, not reach) [67] 達さん (tassan) 達さぬ (tassanu) 達さず (tassazu) |
| 書く (kaku, write) | 書く | 書か | ない ん ぬ ず | 書かない (kakanai, not write) 書かん (kakan) 書かぬ (kakanu) 書かず (kakazu) |
| 嗅ぐ (kagu, smell) | 嗅ぐ | 嗅が | ない ん ぬ ず | 嗅がない (kaganai, not smell) 嗅がん (kagan) 嗅がぬ (kaganu) 嗅がず (kagazu) |
| 呼ぶ(yobu, call) | 呼ぶ | 呼ば | ない ん ぬ ず | 呼ばない(yobanai, not call) 呼ばん(yoban) 呼ばぬ(yobanu) 呼ばず(yobazu) |
| 読む(yomu, read) | 読む | 読ま | ない ん ぬ ず | 読まない(yomanai, not read) 読まん(yoman) 読まぬ(yomanu) 読まず(yomazu) |
| 死ぬ (shinu, die) | 死ぬ | 死な | ない ん ぬ ず | 死なない (shinanai, not die) 死なん (shinan) 死なぬ (shinanu) 死なず (shinazu) |
| Irregular godan verbs | ||||
| 有る (aru, exist) | ある | ない | 無い (nai, be nonexistent) | |
| あら | ない ん ぬ ず | 有らない (aranai, not exist) [68] [69] [70] 有らん (aran) 有らぬ (aranu) [b] [73] [74] [75] [76] [77] 有らず (arazu) [c] [79] [80] [81] [82] | ||
| Ichidan verbs | ||||
| 射る (iru, shoot) | 射る | 射 | ない ん ぬ ず | 射ない (inai, not shoot) 射ん (in) 射ぬ (inu) 射ず (izu) |
| 達しる (tasshiru, reach) | 達しる | 達し | ない ん ぬ ず | 達しない (tasshinai, not reach) 達しん (tasshin) 達しぬ (tasshinu) 達しず (tasshizu) |
| 達せ | ん ぬ ず | 達せん (tassen) 達せぬ (tassenu) 達せず (tassezu) | ||
| 察しる (sasshiru, guess) | 察しる | 察し | ない ん ぬ ず | 察しない (sasshinai, not guess) [83] [84] 察しん (sasshin) 察しぬ (sasshinu) [83] 察しず (sasshizu) [85] |
| 察せ | ん ぬ ず | 察せん (sassen) 察せぬ (sassenu) [86] 察せず (sassezu) [87] | ||
| 信じる (shinjiru, believe) | 信じる | 信じ | ない ん ぬ ず | 信じない (shinjinai, not believe) [88] [89] 信じん (shinjin) 信じぬ (shinjinu) [89] 信じず (shinjizu) [90] |
| 信ぜ | ん ぬ ず | 信ぜん (shinzen) 信ぜぬ (shinzenu) [91] 信ぜず (shinzezu) [92] [93] [94] | ||
| 進じる (shinjiru, give) | 進じる | 進じ | ない ん ぬ ず | 進じない (shinjinai, not give) 進じん (shinjin) 進じぬ (shinjinu) 進じず (shinjizu) |
| 進ぜ | ん ぬ ず | 進ぜん (shinzen) 進ぜぬ (shinzenu) 進ぜず (shinzezu) | ||
| 進ぜる (shinzeru, give) | 進ぜる | 進ぜ | ない ん ぬ ず | 進ぜない (shinzenai, not give) [95] 進ぜん (shinzen) 進ぜぬ (shinzenu) [96] 進ぜず (shinzezu) [97] |
| 得る (eru, get) | 得る | 得 | ない ん ぬ ず | 得ない (enai, not get) 得ん (en) 得ぬ (enu) 得ず (ezu) |
| Irregular verbs | ||||
| する (suru, do) | する | し | ない | しない (shinai, not do) |
| せ | ん ぬ ず | せん (sen) せぬ (senu) せず (sezu) | ||
| 勉強する (benkyō suru, study) | 勉強する | 勉強し | ない | 勉強しない (benkyō shinai, not study) |
| 勉強せ | ん ぬ ず | 勉強せん (benkyō sen) 勉強せぬ (benkyō senu) 勉強せず (benkyō sezu) | ||
| 愛する (aisuru, love) | 愛する | 愛さ | ない ん ぬ ず | 愛さない (aisanai, not love) [63] [98] 愛さん (aisan) 愛さぬ (aisanu) [99] 愛さず (aisazu) [100] |
| 愛し | ない | 愛しない (aishinai) [101] [102] [103] [104] | ||
| 愛せ | ん ぬ ず | 愛せん (aisen) [d] 愛せぬ (aisenu) 愛せず (aisezu) | ||
| 達する (tassuru, reach) | 達する | 達さ 達し | ない ん ぬ ず | 達さない (tassanai, not reach) [105] 達しない (tasshinai) [106] 達さん (tassan) 達しん (tasshin) 達さぬ (tassanu) [107] 達しぬ (tasshinu) 達さず (tassazu) [108] 達しず (tasshizu) |
| 達せ | ん ぬ ず | 達せん (tassen) [e] 達せぬ (tassenu) 達せず (tassezu) | ||
| 察する (sassuru, guess) | 察する | 察し | ない ん ぬ ず | 察しない (sasshinai, not guess) [110] 察しん (sasshin) 察しぬ (sasshinu) [111] 察しず (sasshizu) [112] |
| 察せ | ん ぬ ず | 察せん (sassen) 察せぬ (sassenu) 察せず (sassezu) | ||
| 信ずる (shinzuru, believe) | 信ずる | 信じ | ない ん ぬ ず | 信じない (shinjinai, not believe) [113] 信じん (shinjin) 信じぬ (shinjinu) [114] [115] 信じず (shinjizu) [116] |
| 信ぜ | ん ぬ ず | 信ぜん (shinzen) 信ぜぬ (shinzenu) [117] 信ぜず (shinzezu) [93] [118] | ||
| 進ずる (shinzuru, give) | 進ずる | 進じ 進ぜ | ない ん ぬ ず | 進じない (shinjinai, not give) 進ぜない (shinzenai) 進ぜん (shinzen) 進じん (shinjin) 進ぜぬ (shinzenu) [119] 進じぬ (shinjinu) 進ぜず (shinzezu) [120] 進じず (shinjizu) |
| 来る (kuru, come) [f] | くる | こ | ない ん ぬ ず | 来ない (konai, not come) 来ん (kon) 来ぬ (konu) 来ず (kozu) |
| Verbal auxiliaries | ||||
| 〜ます(る) (‑masu(ru)) | ます(る) | ませ | ん ぬ ず | 〜ません (‑masen, not) 〜ませぬ (‑masenu) [119] [121] [122] [123] [124] [125] 〜ませず (‑masezu) [122] [126] [127] |
| まし | ない | 〜ましない (‑mashinai) [g] | ||
| Adjectives and adjectival auxiliaries | ||||
| 〜ない (‑nai, not) | ない | なく | ない | 〜なくない (‑naku nai, not not) [156] [157] [158] |
| 無い (nai, be nonexistent) | 無くない (naku nai, not be nonexistent → be existent) [159] [160] | |||
| なから | ん ぬ ず | 無からん (nakaran) 無からぬ (nakaranu) [161] [162] 無からず (nakarazu) [163] [164] | ||
| 少ない (sukunai, be scarce) | 少ない | 少なく | ない | 少なくない (sukunaku nai, not be scarce) |
| 少なから | ん ぬ ず | 少なからん (sukunakaran) 少なからぬ (sukunakaranu) [165] [166] [167] 少なからず (sukunakarazu) [168] [169] [170] | ||
| 良い (ii/yoi, be good) | いい よい | よく | ない | 良くない(yoku nai, not be good) |
| よから | ん ぬ ず | 良からん(yokaran) 良からぬ(yokaranu) [171] [172] 良からず(yokarazu) [173] | ||
| 可く (beku, having to) | 可く | 可から | ず | 可からず (bekarazu, not having to) |
| 可き (beki, having to) | 可き | 可から | ざる | 可からざる (bekarazaru, not having to) |
The negative form is compatible with the -de (~で) particle for additional functions, such as requesting someone to cease/desist or joining a subordinate clause. It is also compatible with i‑adjective inflections, since the -nai (~ない) suffix ends with -i (~い). -nakute (なくて) is also used.
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| Please don't eat it. | tabenai de kudasai (食べないで下さい) | request to cease/desist |
| Without eating, I went to bed. | tabenai de, neta (食べないで、寝た) | add a subordinate clause |
| I didn't talk. | hanasanakatta (話さなかった) | i‑adjective inflection (example: negative past tense) |
The negative continuous form is created by using the mizenkei base, followed by the zu (〜ず) suffix; equivalent to replacing -nai (〜ない) with -zu (〜ず) in the table above. An exception is to do (する, suru), which instead conjugates as not doing (せず, sezu). In this form, the negative continuous cannot terminate a sentence. The verb has the "negative continuous tense" unless followed by the ni (に) particle, where its meaning changes to "without". The -zuni form (〜ずに, without doing) is semantically interchangeable with -naide (〜ないで, without doing). However, -zuni is only used in written Japanese or formal speech. [174] [175]
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| While not eating breakfast, I went to work. | asa gohan o tabezu, shigoto e itta (朝ごはんを食べず、仕事へ行った) | negative continuous |
| I went to work without eating breakfast. | asa gohan o tabezu ni shigoto e itta (朝ごはんを食べずに仕事へ行った) | without doing |
The passive or passive potential [176] turns the patient (or target) or victim of an action into a subject. The pure passive simply expresses what act is done by the agent (A) to the patient (P), thus A ga P o yobu (AがPを呼ぶ; 'A calls P') becomes P ga A ni yobareru (PがAに呼ばれる; 'P is called by A'). The adversative, "victimizing" or affective passive expresses how a victim (V) is affected by, or suffers from, the act being done by an agent to a patient, as in V ga A ni P o yobareru (VがAにPを呼ばれる; 'V suffers because A calls P'); English has some similar constructions with intransitive verbs, though not necessarily with a negative connotation, such as "I got rained on" or "I got talked to". The passive can also have no passive meaning, but is merely a more honorific way to exalt the subject. [177] [178] [179] Actual sentences may lack one of the said components (P, V or A) and therefore can become ambiguous (purely passive, adversatively passive or honorific) without additional context, for example kekkonshiki ni yobareru (結婚式に呼ばれる; 'one gets invited to weddings; one suffers because someone else's invited to weddings; those honoroble invite others to weddings'). [177] Intransitive verbs, such as korareru (来られる) and arareru (あられる), do not have the pure passive meaning, only the other two, as in V ga A ni korareru (VがAに来られる; 'V suffers because A comes') and S ga C de arareru (SがCであられる; 'S is (honorably) C'). [180]
Historically, the "passive" construction also had potential use, but except for ichidan verbs and kuru, this use now has a dialectal or old-fashioned literary flavor. [181] It has been argued that the various meanings of the passive arose from the spontaneous potential (see #Potential for more), which spawned both the regular potential and the regular passive, the latter of which came to be used additionally for subject exaltation. [182] It has also been suggested that the pure passive came to be in its current state due to translations from the English passive. [183]
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| Tarō was beaten by his father. | Tarō wa chichioya ni nagurareta. (太郎は父親に殴られた。 [184] ) | pure passivity (中立受身, chūritsu ukemi; the subject is the patient) |
| Today's America was made by immigrants. | Genzai no Amerika wa imintachi ni yotte tsukurareta (現在のアメリカは移民たちによって作られた) | |
| In other words, Japanese perceptual psychologists have begun to write many papers in English, and they have been read by researchers all over the world. | Tsumari, Nihon no chikaku shinrigaku ga eigo de ronbun o ōku yō ni nari, sono ronbun ga sekaijū no kenkyūsha ni yomareru yō ni natta to yū koto de aru. (つまり,日本の知覚心理学者が英語で論文を多く書くようになり,その論文が世界中の研究者に読まれるようになったということである。 [185] ) | |
| Tarō's father died. [h] | Tarō wa chichioya ni shinareta. (太郎は父親に死なれた。 [184] ) | adversative/affective passivity (被害・迷惑受身, higai/meiwaku ukemi; the subject is affected, often negatively, by the agent's action) |
| My mother read my diary. [i] | Nikki o hahaoya ni yomareta (日記を母親に読まれた) | |
| The inspector dropped in on us without notice. [j] | Nan no sata mo naku shigakukan ni korareta (何の沙汰も無く視学官に来られた) | |
| Lilischur felt the chill as if she had been rained on, while Manfred felt like he was shaken in both mind and body. [k] | Ririshua wa ame ni furareta yō na usurasamui kibun datta ga, Manfurēto wa kokoro mo karada mo yusaburareta yō de. (リリーシュアは雨に降られたような薄ら寒い気分だったが、マンフレートは心も身体も揺さぶられたようで。 [186] ) | |
| It was Mr Brown who came to see you. | Anata ni ai ni korareta no wa Buraun-san deshita (あなたに会いに来られたのはブラウンさんでした) | subject exaltation (尊敬, sonkei; the subject is the exalted agent) |
| What school did you go to? | Gakkō wa dochira e ikaremashita ka (学校はどちらへ行かれましたか) | |
| No, this man could not toil, he could never exert himself, I thought with resignation. | Iya, kono otoko ni wa tsutomerarenai, funpatsu serarenai, to akiramemashita. (いや、此男には勉められない、奮發せられない、と斷念ました。 [187] ) | potentiality (可能, kanō) |
| This place called Sumita was a hot-spring town, about ten minutes by train away from the castle town, or you could walk for thirty minutes, | Kono Sumita to yū tokoro wa onsen no aru machi de, jōka kara kisha da to jippun bakari, aruite sanjippun de yukareru, (此住田と云ふ所は溫泉のある町で、城下から汽車だと十分許り、步行いて三十分で行かれる、 [188] ) |
The passive form is created by using the mizenkei base, followed by the reru/rareru (れる・られる) suffix. For ichidan verbs and kuru (来る), the passive form and the potential form have an identical conjugation pattern with the same rareru (られる) suffix. This makes it impossible to distinguish whether an ichidan verb adopts a passive or potential function without contextual information.
Arareru is historically attested with potential uses, [189] but it is now primarily the more honorific way of saying aru (ある) and iru (いる). [190] [191]
Honorific verbs can be made even more polite, as in irassharareru (いらっしゃられる), [192] [193] [194] ossharareru (仰られる), etc. [194] [195] [196] Excessively honorific verbs have been proscribed by textbooks, but they seem somewhat tolerable by speakers, even though they are still not as frequent with options without ‑reru. [197] [198] There are historical precedents of such double honorifics dating back to the Edo period. [199]
Sareru is said to be shortened from serareru, [200] the latter of which is said to be "pseudo-literary" (meant to emulate the writing style of classical Japanese). [201] Shirareru is rare for Group-A verbs, [202] and is not to be confused with the segmentally and accentually homophonous shirareru (知られる; 'be known'), which may also be spelt in hiragana.
| Dictionary form | Pattern [56] | Passive form | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Godan verbs | ||||
| 結う(yuu, fasten) | 結う | 結わ | れる | 結われる(yuwareru, be fastened/suffer because one fastens/(can) fasten) |
| 言う(yū, say) | ゆう | いわ ゆわ | れる | 言われる (iwareru/yuwareru, be said/suffer because one says/(can) say) |
| 勝つ (katsu, win) | 勝つ | 勝た | れる | 勝たれる (katareru, suffer because one wins/(can) win) [203] |
| 狩る (karu, hunt) | 狩る | 狩ら | れる | 狩られる (karareru, be hunted/suffer because one hunts/(can) hunt) |
| 有る (aru, exist) | 有る | 有ら | れる | 有られる (arareru, suffer because one exists/(can) exist) [204] [205] [206] |
| 為さる (nasaru, do) | 為さる | 為さら | れる | 為さられる (nasarareru, be done/suffer because one does/(can) do) [207] [208] [209] |
| 貸す (kasu, lend) | 貸す | 貸さ | れる | 貸される (kasareru, be lent/suffer because one lends/(can) lend) |
| 愛す (aisu, love) | 愛す | 愛さ | れる | 愛される (aisareru, be loved/suffer because one loves/(can) love) |
| 達す (tassu, reach) | 達す | 達さ | れる | 達される (tassareru, be reached/suffer because one reaches/(can) reach) |
| 書く (kaku, write) | 書く | 書か | れる | 書かれる (kakareru, be written/suffer because one writes/(can) write) |
| 嗅ぐ (kagu, smell) | 嗅ぐ | 嗅が | れる | 嗅される (kagareru, be smelled/suffer because one smells/(can) smell) |
| 呼ぶ(yobu, call) | 呼ぶ | 呼ば | れる | 呼ばれる(yobareru, be called/suffer because one calls/(can) call) |
| 読む(yomu, read) | 読む | 読ま | れる | 読まれる(yomareru, be read/suffer because one reads/(can) read) |
| 死ぬ (shinu, die) | 死ぬ | 死な | れる | 死なれる (shinareru, suffer because one dies/(can) die) [210] |
| Ichidan verbs | ||||
| 射る (iru, shoot) | 射る | 射 | られる | 射られる (irareru, be shot/suffer because one shoots/(can) shoot) |
| 達しる (tasshiru, reach) | 達しる | 達し 達せ | られる | 達しられる (tasshirareru, be reached/suffer because one reaches/(can) reach) 達せられる (tasserareru) |
| 察しる (sasshiru, guess) | 察しる | 察し 察せ | られる | 察しられる (sasshirareru, be guessed/suffer because one guesses/(can) guess) [211] 察せられる (sasserareru) [211] |
| 信じる (shinjiru, believe) | 信じる | 信じ 信ぜ | られる | 信じられる (shinjirareru, be believed/suffer because one believes/(can) believe) [212] [213] 信ぜられる (shinzerareru) [214] [215] |
| 進ぜる (shinzeru, give) | 進ぜる | 進ぜ | られる | 進ぜられる (shinzerareru, be given/suffer because one gives/(can) give) [216] |
| 得る (eru, get) | 得る | 得 | られる | 得られる (erareru, be gotten/suffer because one gets/(can) get) |
| Irregular verbs | ||||
| する (suru, do) | する | さ | れる | される (sareru, be done/suffer because one does/(can) do) |
| せ し | られる | せられる (serareru) [217] しられる (shirareru) | ||
| 勉強する (benkyō suru, study) | 勉強する | 勉強さ | れる | 勉強される (benkyō sareru, be studied/suffer because one studies/(can) study) [218] [219] |
| 勉強せ 勉強し | られる | 勉強せられる (benkyō serareru) [220] [221] 勉強しられる (benkyō shirareru) [222] | ||
| 愛する (aisuru, love) | 愛する | 愛さ | れる | 愛される (aisareru, be loved/suffer because one loves/(can) love) [218] [223] |
| 愛せ 愛し | られる | 愛せられる (aiserareru) [218] [224] [225] [226] 愛しられる (aishirareru) [224] [225] | ||
| 達する (tassuru, reach) | 達する | 達さ | れる | 達される (tassareru, be reached/suffer because one reaches/(can) reach) [227] [228] |
| 達せ 達し | られる | 達せられる (tasserareru) [229] [230] 達しられる (tasshirareru) [231] [232] | ||
| 察する (sassuru, guess) | 察する | 察せ 察し | られる | 察せられる (sasserareru, be guessed/suffer because one guesses/(can) guess) [233] 察しられる (sasshirareru) [234] |
| 信ずる (shinzuru, believe) | 信ずる | 信ぜ 信じ | られる | 信ぜられる (shinzerareru, be believed/suffer because one believes/(can) believe) [235] [218] [236] 信じられる (shinjirareru) [235] [218] [237] |
| 進ずる (shinzuru, give) | 進ずる | 進ぜ 進じ | られる | 進ぜられる (shinzerareru, be given/suffer because one gives/(can) give) [238] 進じられる (shinjirareru) [239] [240] [241] |
| 来る (kuru, come) | くる | こ | られる | 来られる (korareru, suffer because one comes/(can) come) [242] |
After conjugating into the passive form, the verbs become ichidan verbs. They can therefore be further conjugated according to any ichidan pattern. For instance, a passive verb (e.g. be said (言われる, iwareru)) can conjugate using the ichidan pattern for the te form (て形, te kei) to join sequential statements (iwarete (言われて)), or the conjunctive form to append the polite -masu (〜ます) auxiliary verb (iwaremasu (言われます)).
Potentiality (可能, kanō) describes the possibility for an action to happen, whether it involves an intentional acting agent or not: [243]
The patient of an action is customarily marked with the nominative particle ga (rather than the accusative o), [244] which has the same appearance as the passive voice:
It is not impossible to use A ga P o taberareru (AがPを食べられる; ni and o do not occur together for the potential [245] ) instead in the passive potential above, but it is less preferable in this case. [244] [246] However, o is more preferable to ga in the presence of a motion verb (whose pure passive does not naturally occur): [244]
The rise of the particle ga as a marker of the patient of the action can be attributed to the "spontaneous (or natural) passive (or potential)" ( 自発 , jihatsu), whereby the patient or the action simply comes about, seemingly in a vacuum, without a voluntary or intentional agent acting on it. [247] This may also relate to the verb dekiru (出来る) (see the phrase koto ga dekiru mentioned below) which means "come about; come into existence; materialize; form; take shape; be done/made/born/produced → be doable/feasible/possible", [248] as in kome ga dekita (米ができた; transl. the rice was produced), kutsu ga dekita (靴ができた; transl. the shoes were made), kodomo ga dekita (子供ができた; transl. a child was born), etc. [249] Thus, such phrase as shōsetsu ga kaketa (小説が書けた), spoken in the past tense by an author who does not want to mention themself as an agent, can be translated as "the novel wrote itself" (= the novel came about in written form), rather than "I was able to write the novel". [250] Other examples without voluntary agents include shizen ni waraete kita (自然に笑えてきた; transl. I was seized by laughter = laughter spontaneously occurred to me), hontō no yō ni omoete kita (本当のように思えてきた; transl. it began to appear true = the thought of it being true occurred to me), [249] nakete kichatta (泣けてきちゃった; transl. I couldn't help crying = crying unfortunately occurred to me), tsureta (釣れた; transl. I've got one = a fish's caught itself on my line), [251] etc.
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| Leticia Dartois can read minds. | Retishia Darutowa wa kokoro ga yomeru. (レティシア・ダルトワは心が読める。 [252] ) | capabilitative potentiality (能力可能, nōryoku kanō; an agent is (in)capable of doing something) |
| Nobody can read my hand but my brother there—so he copies for me. | Watashi no ji o yomeru no wa, koko no watashi no otōto dake de――watashi no seisho o shite kureru no desu. (私の字を読めるのは、ここの私の弟だけで――私の清書をしてくれるのです。 [253] ) | |
| This novel is very readable. [l] | Kono shōsetsu wa nakanaka yomeru (この小説はなかなか読める) | circumstantial potentiality (状況可能, jōkyō kanō; something can(not) happen because of external circumstance) |
| His handwriting is messy and completely illegible. | Ano hito wa ji ga kitanakute yoku yomenai (あの人は字が汚くてよく読めない) | |
| You can’t read at a place this noisy. | Konna yakamashii tokoro de wa, hon nado wa yomenai (こんなやかましい処では、本などは読めない [254] ) | |
| Before I knew it, it was already written. | Itsu no ma ni ka kakete shimatta (いつのまにか書けてしまった [255] ) | spontaneity / natural potentiality (自発・自然可能, jihatsu / shizen kanō; something seemingly spontaneously comes about) |
| Try as she might to hold back, tears just start to flow. | Koraete mo, shizen ni nakete kuru (こらえても、自然に泣けてくる [255] ) | |
| The fish were biting like crazy. | Omoshiroi hodo yoku tsureta (おもしろいほどよく釣れた [248] ) |
Potential verbs are unique to godan-based passive potential verbs, [256] [257] which have been said to have been shortened by removing ar from areru: yomareru (読まれる; 'be read; can read') → yomeru (読める; 'can read'); kakareru (書かれる; 'be written; can write') → kakeru (書ける; 'can write'). [258] Other hypotheses of derivation include contractions from conjunctives followed by eru (得る; 'get', see Japanese conjugation (ren'yōkei base)#Conjunctive: Grammatical compatibility), presumably as in kakieru (書きえる; 'can write') → kakeru; or conversions of nidan attributives into ichidan potentials, such as kiruru → kireru (切るる→切れる), shiruru → shireru (知るる→知れる). [259] Short potential verbs of this type are conventional in Tokyo Japanese, while long verbs have become largely obsolescent, elevated or non-Tokyo. [260]
The hypothetical short potential verb *wakareru (分かれる; 'can make sense') is not used. However, the non-potential intransitive wakareru (分かれる; 'branch off'), [248] the adversative passive wakarareru (分かられる; 'suffer because it makes sense') and causative wakaraseru (分からせる; 'cause it to make sense') are acceptable. [261]
Non-godan-based verbs such as taberareru (食べられる; 'can eat; be eaten') remain ambiguous. Such ambiguity can be resolved, at least colloquially, by a process dubbed ra‑nuki kotoba ( ら抜き言葉 ; lit. 'ra‑less word'), [262] thus distinguishing the short taberareru → tabereru (食べられる→食べれる; 'can eat') for the potential and the long taberareru (食べられる; 'be eaten') for the passive. This process was originally dialectal, but has been increasingly adopted by Tokyo speakers. [263] Preference polls have shown that even among ra‑nuki kotoba users, the likelihood of usage significantly decreases as the mora count in the verb stem exceeds two; in other words, mi.re.ru (見れる; one-mora stem) and ta.be.re.ru (食べれる; two-mora stem) are highly likely, but shi.n.ji.re.ru (信じれる; three-mora stem), ka.n.ga.e.re.ru (考えれる; four-mora stem), o.to.shi.i.re.re.ru (陥れれる; five-mora stem) are much less likely. [264]
Shortening passive verbs for potential uses is not universal among dialects, some of which may only use long verbs instead. [265]
Apart from the dedicated potential verbs, the less ambiguous but more circumlocutory phrase koto ga dekiru (ことができる) can be used, as in iku koto ga dekiru (行くことができる; 'can go'), yameru koto ga dekiru (止めることができる; 'can stop'), etc. Depending on usage, a particle such as wa, mo or no can be used instead of ga. [266] [267] Some potential verbs, such as nomeru (飲める; 'can drink; can be drunk; is drinkable'), kueru (喰える; 'can eat; can be eaten; is eatable'), etc., have meanings similar to those of ‑able adjectives in English, such as drinkable/potable, eatable/edible, etc., which describe the patient's quality to be enjoyed by the agent, not the agent's capability of enjoying the patient; these verbs are not completely interchangeable with koto ga dekiru; compare Kono sake wa dō mo nomenai. (この酒はどうも飲めない。; transl. This liquor is so undrinkable. (=it tastes awful, or is not fit for drinking)) and Kono sake wa dō mo nomu koto ga dekinai. (この酒はどうも飲むことができない。; transl. It seems I can't drink this liquor. (=I'm incapable of drinking, or I can't afford to drink)). [268]
Most contemporary ‑suru verbs do not really have underlying potential verbs and must use suru koto ga dekiru, which can be shortened to dekiru only for Group-A verbs, as in yasuku (suru koto ga) dekiru (安く(することが)できる; 'can make cheap'), benkyō (suru koto ga) dekiru (勉強(することが)できる; 'can study'), onegai (suru koto ga) dekiru (お願い(することが)できる; 'can request'); but nessuru koto ga dekiru (熱することができる; 'can heat'), kyōsuru koto ga dekiru (供することができる; 'can offer'), etc. Historically, the passive potential sareru, [269] serareru [270] [271] [187] and shirareru [272] were seldom used for Group-A verbs, but they have been supplanted by (suru koto ga) dekiru, which figured in a trend towards disambiguating the polysemous passive potential during the Meiji era. [273] Non-Group-A verbs, which have become more like godan (partially or completely), do have potential verbs, such as aiseru (愛せる; 'can love') (short)/aisareru (愛される; 'can love; be loved') (long), nakuseru (無くせる; 'can lose')/nakusareru (無くされる; 'can lose; be lost'), etc; or more like ichidan, although probably without ra-nuki kotoba, as in ōjirareru/ōzerareru (応じられる・応ぜられる; 'can respond'), [274] or with it, as in shinjireru (信じれる; 'can believe'). [263]
Writers can make use of various ways to convey potentiality, such as when Natsume Sōseki used a short potential verb (aisezu), a long passive potential verb (irarenai), koto + particle + dekiru (hirogete dakishimeru koto no dekinai) and eru/uru (aishiuru) in the same sentence in the novel Kokoro : Ningen o aishiuru hito, aisezu ni wa irarenai hito, sore de ite jibun no futokoro ni irō to suru mono o, te o hirogete dakishimeru koto no dekinai hito,――kore ga sensei de atta. (人間を愛し得る人、愛せずにはゐられない人、それでゐて自分の懷に入らうとするものを、手をひろげて抱き締める事の出來ない人、――是が先生であつた。 [275] ; lit. 'A person who could love, a person who could not be without being able to love, yet a person who was incapable of opening his arms and embracing someone trying to get into his heart,――that was Sensei.', transl. A man capable of love, or I should say rather a man who was by nature incapable of not loving; but a man who could not wholeheartedly accept the love of another—such a one was Sensei. [276] ).
| Dictionary form | Pattern [56] | Potential form | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Godan verbs | ||||
| 結う(yuu, fasten) | 結う | 結え | る | 結える(yueru, can fasten) |
| 言う(yū, say) | ゆう | いえ | る | 言える (ieru, can say) |
| 勝つ (katsu, win) | 勝つ | 勝て | る | 勝てる (kateru, can win) |
| 狩る (karu, hunt) | 狩る | 狩れ | る | 狩れる (kareru, can hunt) |
| 貸す (kasu, lend) | 貸す | 貸せ | る | 貸せる (kaseru, can lend) |
| 愛す (aisu, love) | 愛す | 愛せ | る | 愛せる (aiseru, can love) [277] [278] |
| 達す (tassu, reach) | 達す | 達せ | る | 達せる (tasseru, can reach) [279] [279] [280] |
| 書く (kaku, write) | 書く | 書け | る | 書ける (kakeru, can write) |
| 嗅ぐ (kagu, smell) | 嗅ぐ | 嗅げ | る | 嗅げる (kageru, can smell) |
| 呼ぶ(yobu, call) | 呼ぶ | 呼べ | る | 呼べる(yoberu, can call) |
| 読む(yomu, read) | 読む | 読め | る | 読める(yomeru, can read) [253] |
| 死ぬ (shinu, die) | 死ぬ | 死ね | る | 死ねる (shineru, can die) |
| Ichidan verbs | ||||
| 射る (iru, shoot) | 射る | 射 | (ら)れる | 射(ら)れる (i(ra)reru, can shoot) |
| 達しる (tasshiru, reach) | 達しる | 達し 達せ | (ら)れる | 達し(ら)れる (tasshi(ra)reru, can reach) 達せ(ら)れる (tasse(ra)reru) |
| 察しる (sasshiru, guess) | 察しる | 察し 察せ | (ら)れる | 察し(ら)れる (sasshi(ra)reru, can guess) 察せ(ら)れる (sasse(ra)reru) |
| 信じる (shinjiru, believe) | 信じる | 信じ 信ぜ | (ら)れる | 信じ(ら)れる (shinji(ra)reru, can believe) 信ぜ(ら)れる (shinze(ra)reru) |
| 進ぜる (shinzeru, give) | 進ぜる | 進ぜ | (ら)れる | 進ぜ(ら)れる (shinze(ra)reru, can give) |
| 得る (eru, get) | 得る | 得 | (ら)れる | 得(ら)れる (e(ra)reru, can get) |
| Irregular verbs | ||||
| 愛する (aisuru, love) | 愛する | 愛せ | る | 愛せる (aiseru, can love) [281] |
| 達する (tassuru, reach) | 達する | 達せ | る | 達せる (tasseru, can reach) [282] |
| 達せ 達し | (ら)れる | 達せ(ら)れる (tasse(ra)reru) 達し(ら)れる (tasshi(ra)reru) | ||
| 察する (sassuru, guess) | 察する | 察せ 察し | (ら)れる | 察せ(ら)れる (sasse(ra)reru, can guess) 察し(ら)れる (sasshi(ra)reru) |
| 信ずる (shinzuru, believe) | 信ずる | 信ぜ 信じ | (ら)れる | 信ぜ(ら)れる (shinze(ra)reru, can believe) 信じ(ら)れる (shinji(ra)reru) |
| 進ずる (shinzuru, give) | 進ずる | 進ぜ 進じ | (ら)れる | 進ぜ(ら)れる (shinze(ra)reru, can give) 進じ(ら)れる (shinji(ra)reru) |
| 来る (kuru, come) | くる | こ | (ら)れる | 来(ら)れる (ko(ra)reru, can come) |
After conjugating into the potential form, the verbs become ichidan verbs. They can therefore be further conjugated according to any ichidan pattern. For instance, a potential verb (e.g. can say (言える, ieru)) can conjugate using the ichidan pattern for the te form (て形, te kei) to join sequential statements (iete (言えて)), or the conjunctive form to append the polite -masu (〜ます) auxiliary verb (iemasu (言えます)).
The causative form ( 使役形 , shiekikei) is used to express that a subject was forced or allowed to do something. [283]
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| I make them work hard. | ganbaraseru (頑張らせる) | forced to |
| I let them play outside. | soto de asobaseru (外で遊ばせる) | allowed to |
| The baseball coach made the players exercise. | yakyū no kōchi wa senshu tachi ni renshū saseta (野球のコーチは選手達に練習させた) [m] | forced to by |
The causative form is created by using the mizenkei base, followed by the ‑seru/‑saseru (せる・させる; ichidan) suffix. Colloquially, the shorter ‑su/‑sasu (す・さす; godan) can be used, which may cause some verbs to take the same form, such as ugokasu (動かす; 'cause it to move; move it') and ugokaseru (動かせる; 'can cause it to move; can move it'). [284] ‑Su/‑sasu was the nidan ancestor of the modern ichidan‑seru/‑saseru; it became yodan sometime during Late Middle Japanese. [18] A survey found that respondents were more likely to use ‑(sa)su, which is now godan, over ‑(sa)seru, if the original verb was already godan. [285]
One of the negative forms of araseru (あらせる; 'let exist'), arasezu (あらせず; 'not letting exist'), as in itoma mo arasezu (いとまもあらせず; 'not letting any spare time exist → not letting them have any spare time'), has been attested. [189] De araseru (であらせる; 'make be; let be') has also been used.
The causatives of honorific verbs do not seem to occur, [189] although at least one author has artificially used nasaraseta (なさらせた) in their literal translations of Amdo Tibetan honorific causatives. [286]
Saseru (させる; 'make/let do') is said to be shortened from sesaseru (せさせる). [200]
| Dictionary form | Pattern [56] | Causative form | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Godan verbs | ||||
| 結う(yuu, fasten) | 結う | 結わ | せる す | 結わせる(yuwaseru, cause to fasten) 結わす(yuwasu) |
| 言う(yū, say) | ゆう | いわ ゆわ | せる す | 言わせる (iwaseru/yuwaseru, cause to say) 言わす (iwasu/yuwasu) |
| 勝つ (katsu, win) | 勝つ | 勝た | せる す | 勝たせる (kataseru, cause to win) 勝たす (katasu) |
| 狩る (karu, hunt) | 狩る | 狩ら | せる す | 狩らせる (karaseru, cause to hunt) 狩らす (karasu) |
| 有る (aru, exist) | 有る | 有ら | せる す | 有らせる (araseru, cause to exist) [287] [288] [289] [290] [291] [292] [293] [294] [295] 有らす (arasu) |
| 貸す (kasu, lend) | 貸す | 貸さ | せる す | 貸させる (kasaseru, cause to lend) 貸さす (kasasu) |
| 愛す (aisu, love) | 愛す | 愛さ | せる す | 愛させる (aisaseru, cause to love) 愛さす (aisasu) |
| 達す (tassu, reach) | 達す | 達さ | せる す | 達させる (tassaseru, cause to reach) 達さす (tassasu) |
| 書く (kaku, write) | 書く | 書か | せる す | 書かせる (kakaseru, cause to write) 書かす (kakasu) |
| 嗅ぐ (kagu, smell) | 嗅ぐ | 嗅が | せる す | 嗅がせる (kagaseru, cause to smell) 嗅がす (kagasu) |
| 呼ぶ(yobu, call) | 呼ぶ | 呼ば | せる す | 呼ばせる(yobaseru, cause to call) 呼ばす(yobasu) |
| 読む(yomu, read) | 読む | 読ま | せる す | 読ませる(yomaseru, cause to read) 読ます(yomasu) |
| 死ぬ (shinu, die) | 死ぬ | 死な | せる す | 死なせる (shinaseru, cause to die) 死なす (shinasu) |
| Ichidan verbs | ||||
| 射る (iru, shoot) | 射る | 射 | させる さす | 射させる (isaseru, cause to shoot) 射さす (isasu) |
| 達しる (tasshiru, reach) | 達しる | 達し 達せ | させる さす | 達しさせる (tasshisaseru, cause to reach) 達せさせる (tassesaseru) 達しさす (tasshisasu) 達せさす (tassesasu) |
| 察しる (sasshiru, guess) | 察しる | 察し 察せ | させる さす | 察しさせる (sasshisaseru, cause to guess) [296] 察せさせる (sassesaseru) 察しさす (sasshisasu) 察せさす (sassesasu) |
| 感じる (kanjiru, feel) | 感じる | 感じ 感ぜ | させる さす | 感じさせる (kanjisaseru, cause to feel) [297] 感ぜさせる (kanzesaseru) [298] 感じさす (kanjisasu) 感ぜさす (kanzesasu) |
| 進ぜる (shinzeru, give) | 進ぜる | 進ぜ | させる さす | 進ぜさせる (shinzesaseru, cause to give) 進ぜさす (shinzesasu) |
| 得る (eru, get) | 得る | 得 | させる さす | 得させる (esaseru, cause to get) 得さす (esasu) |
| Irregular verbs | ||||
| する (suru, do) | する | さ | せる す | させる (saseru, cause to do) さす (sasu) |
| せ し | させる さす | せさせる (sesaseru) [299] しさせる (shisaseru) [300] せさす (sesasu) しさす (shisasu) | ||
| 変化する (henka suru, transform) | 変化する | 変化さ | せる す | 変化させる (henka saseru, cause to transform) 変化さす (henka sasu) |
| 変化せ 変化し | させる さす | 変化せさせる (henka sesaseru) [301] [302] 変化しさせる (henka shisaseru) [303] [304] [305] [306] 変化せさす (henka sesasu) 変化しさす (henka shisasu) | ||
| 愛する (aisuru, love) | 愛する | 愛さ | せる す | 愛させる (aisaseru, cause to love) [218] [307] 愛さす (aisasu) |
| 愛せ 愛し | させる さす | 愛せさせる (aisesaseru) [308] 愛しさせる (aishisaseru) [309] 愛せさす (aisesasu) 愛しさす (aishisasu) | ||
| 達する (tassuru, reach) | 達する | 達さ | せる す | 達させる (tassaseru, cause to reach) [310] 達さす (tassasu) |
| 達せ 達し | させる さす | 達せさせる (tassesaseru) [218] [311] 達しさせる (tasshisaseru) [218] [312] 達せさす (tassesasu) 達しさす (tasshisasu) | ||
| 察する (sassuru, guess) | 察する | 察せ 察し | させる さす | 察せさせる (sassesaseru, cause to guess) [313] 察しさせる (sasshisaseru) [314] [315] 察せさす (sassesasu) 察しさす (sasshisasu) |
| 感ずる (kanzuru, feel) | 感ずる | 感ぜ 感じ | させる さす | 感ぜさせる (kanzesaseru, cause to feel) [218] [316] 感じさせる (kanjisaseru) [218] [317] 感ぜさす (kanzesasu) 感じさす (kanjisasu) |
| 進ずる (shinzuru, give) | 進ずる | 進ぜ 進じ | させる さす | 進ぜさせる (shinzesaseru, cause to give) [318] 進じさせる (shinjisaseru) [319] 進ぜさす (shinzesasu) 進じさす (shinjisasu) |
| 来る (kuru, come) | くる | こ | させる さす | 来させる (kosaseru, cause to come) 来さす (kosasu) |
The pseudo-classical causative makes use of -shimeru (~しめる) instead of ‑(sa)seru as shown above. It has ichidan conjugation, and it is meant to emulate the true classical causative with ‑shimu which has nidan conjugation. As a pseudo-classical auxiliary, ‑shimeru combines only with classical irrealis forms, which in most cases are not different from modern ones; but in the case of suru which has three irrealis forms, only the classical se- is used as in seshimeru, not *sashimeru nor *shishimeru. [320]
After conjugating into the causative form, the verbs become ichidan verbs. They can therefore be further conjugated according to any ichidan pattern. For instance, a causative verb (e.g. caused to say (言わせる, iwaseru)) can conjugate using the ichidan pattern for the te form (て形, te kei) to join sequential statements (iwasete (言わせて)), or the conjunctive form to append the polite -masu (〜ます) auxiliary verb (iwasemasu (言わせます)).
The causative passive form expresses that a reluctant subject was positioned (or forced) into doing something they would rather avoid. The causative passive form is obtained by conjugating a verb into its causative form and further conjugating it into the passive form. However, because words such as mataserareru (待たせられる) are considered difficult to pronounce, the conjugational suffix is often contracted in colloquial speech. Specific to godan verbs only, the sera‑ (せら〜; from せられる) contracts into sa- (さ〜). [321]
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| I'm made to study by my parents. | ryōshin ni benkyō saserareru (両親に勉強させられる) | formal |
| I'm made to wait. | matasareru (待たされる) | colloquial present |
| I was made to buy something. | kawasareta (買わされた) | colloquial past |
The volitional or hortative expresses the speaker's or speakers' personal volition ("I think I will do it", "we think we will do it"), or invitation to others ("let's do it"), to do something. The same form, otherwise known as the conjectural, tentative or presumptive, expresses subjective speculation ("I think/presume that's the case") or supposition ("perhaps that's the case", "that could be the case"). The tentative meanings are increasingly outdated as later generations of speakers favor using darō, deshō, or de gozaimashō as less ambiguous tentative markers (more in the subsection below).
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| I put off this task for later. | Sono shigoto wa atomawashi ni shiyō (その仕事は後回しにしよう) [322] | personal volition |
| I'll overlook your mistake this time. | Konkai wa anata no machigai o ōme ni miyō (今回はあなたの間違いを大目に見よう) | |
| It's getting late, let's go home. | Osoi kara kaerō (遅いから帰ろう) | invitation to act together |
| Shall we go out for dinner? | Yūshoku o soto de tabeyō ka (夕食を外で食べようか) | |
| There will probably be many objections at the meeting. | Kaigi de wa ōku no hanron ga dasareyō (会議では多くの反論が出されよう) [322] | speculation or supposition |
| Any child could do that. | Donna kodomo de mo sore wa dekiyō (どんな子供でもそれはできよう) |
The so-called "volitional form" is actually a combination of the mizenkei and the auxiliary う, which underwent systemic historical sound changes that affected all the examples below. These sound changes motivated the term godan ("five grade"), which replaced yodan ("four grade"). See Japanese godan and ichidan verbs § Godan vs yodan. For non-godan verbs, during the final stage as shown in the table below, the vowels of the original mizenkei, i, e and o, [323] were reintroduced in some dialects, especially eastern ones, which yielded the suffix ‑yō, as in iyō, eyō and koyō. Other dialects, especially western ones, did not undergo this development. [324] [325] [326] [327] For suru in particular, the eastern vowel i is used rather than the western e, hence shiyō rather than seyō, the latter of which is found in some Chūbu dialects. [328] The unique shapes of ‑mashō (rather than *‑mashiyō), deshō (rather than *deshiyō) and the negative ‑masen suggest their provenance in western polite speech. [20]
Due to the said historical sound changes, all volitional/tentative forms contain the long vowel ō, but it is susceptible to shortening into an o in speech, especially in dialects. [329] All volitionals and tentatives are accented on the start of the ō, as in yobō (呼ぼう; [jòbóò]), yobimashō (呼びましょう; [jòbímáɕóò]), yondarō (呼んだろう; [jòńdáɾóò]), yobanakarō (呼ばなかろう; [jòbánákáɾóò]), etc.
Most verbs have volitional meanings, as in shiyō/shimashō (しよう・しましょう; 'let's do it'), although this can be interpreted as self-tentative ("I'll probably do it"). To express tentativity unambiguously, darō/jarō, de arō or deshō (or hyper-politely, de gozaimashō), which is unambiguously tentative, is added, as in suru darō / suru deshō / shimasu deshō (するだろう・するでしょう・しますでしょう; 'he'll probably do it'). In some cases where the subject lacks human agency, the tentative meaning is more plausible, for example, kumorō/kumorimashō (曇ろう・曇りましょう) means "it'll probably be cloudy" tentatively, not *"let's be cloudy" volitionally; ame ga furō / ame ga furimashō (雨が降ろう・雨が降りましょう) means "it'll probably rain", not *"let's rain"; dekiyō/dekimashō (できよう・できましょう) means "probably can" not *"let's be able". These have been increasingly replaced by kumoru darō / kumoru deshō / kumorimasu deshō (曇るだろう・曇るでしょう・曇りますでしょう), ame ga furu darō / ame ga furu deshō / ame ga furimasu deshō (雨が降るだろう・雨が降るでしょう・雨が降りますでしょう) and dekiru darō / dekiru deshō / dekimasu deshō (できるだろう・できるでしょう・できますでしょう). Most adjectives have tentative meanings, as in akakarō (赤かろう; 'it's probably red') with a built-in arō, or increasingly, akai darō/deshō (赤いだろう・でしょう). [330] Arō (tentative) may be substituted with aru darō in writing, and with arimashō for more politeness; [331] and de arō with darō in writing, and with de arimashō for more politeness. [18] The past tentative ‑ta/‑da darō is preferred to ‑tarō/‑darō, [332] deshita deshō to deshitarō, and ‑mashita deshō to ‑mashitarō. However, ‑ta/‑da darō can be shortened back to ‑ta/‑da 'rō, albeit with different accent patterns; compare [taɾó(ː)] for ‑tarō, [333] and [tá|daɾó(ː)→tá|ɾó(ː)] or [tádaɾo(ː)→táɾo(ː)] for ‑ta darō → ‑ta 'rō. [334] For the negative, such forms of the types of yobanakarō (呼ばなかろう; probably not read), [335] ōkiku nakarō (大きくなかろう) and hon de/ja nakarō (本で・じゃなかろう; probably not a book) are common in writing but not quite in speech, where ‑nai darō/deshō (〜ないだろう・でしょう) are preferred. [336] The rise of the darō/deshō-appended tentative as a distinction in form from the earlier polysemous tentative/hortative is attested from the early 19th century. [329]
The western negative ‑n, primarily used in ‑masen, no longer has a dedicated tentative/volitional; in Old Japanese, there was ‑ji. [337] The negative tentative/volitional has been expressed with the attributive followed by mai; in the particular case of ‑masen, there is ‑masu mai. [338] ‑N darō [339] /jarō [340] /de arō [341] /deshō [342] and ‑masen deshō [338] are also used.
| Dictionary form | Pattern [56] | Volitional form | Historical evolution [343] | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Godan verbs | |||||
| 結う(yuu, fasten) | 結う | 結お | う | 結おう(yuō, let's/probably fasten) | /amu→aũ→ɔː→oː/ |
| 言う(yū, say) | ゆう | いお | う | 言おう (iō, let's/probably say) | |
| 通う (kayou, commute) | 通う | 通お | う | 通おう (kayoō, let's/probably commute) | |
| 拾う (hirou, pick up) | 拾う | 拾お | う | 拾おう (hiroō, let's/probably pick up) | |
| 勝つ (katsu, win) | 勝つ | 勝と | う | 勝とう (katō, let's/probably win) | |
| 狩る (karu, hunt) | 狩る | 狩ろ | う | 狩ろう (karō, let's/probably hunt) | |
| 有る (aru, exist) | 有る | 有ろ | う | 有ろう (arō, probably exist) [344] [345] [346] [347] [348] | |
| 下さる (kudasaru, give) | 下さる | 下さろ | う | 下さろう (kudasarō, let's/probably give) [349] [350] [351] [352] [353] | |
| 貸す (kasu, lend) | 貸す | 貸そ | う | 貸そう (kasō, let's/probably lend) | |
| 愛す (aisu, love) | 愛す | 愛そ | う | 愛そう (aisō, let's/probably love) [354] | |
| 達す (tassu, reach) | 達す | 達そ | う | 達そう (tassō, let's/probably reach) [279] [355] | |
| 書く (kaku, write) | 書く | 書こ | う | 書こう (kakō, let's/probably write) | |
| 嗅ぐ (kagu, smell) | 嗅ぐ | 嗅ご | う | 嗅ごう (kagō, let's/probably smell) | |
| 呼ぶ(yobu, call) | 呼ぶ | 呼ぼ | う | 呼ぼう(yobō, let's/probably call) | |
| 読む(yomu, read) | 読む | 読も | う | 読もう(yomō, let's/probably read) | |
| 死ぬ (shinu, die) | 死ぬ | 死の | う | 死のう (shinō, let's/probably die) | |
| Ichidan verbs | |||||
| 射る (iru, shoot) | 射る | 射 | よう | 射よう (iyō, let's/probably shoot) | /imu→iũ→juː→ijoː/ |
| 達しる (tasshiru, reach) | 達しる | 達し | よう | 達しよう (tasshiyō, let's/probably reach) | |
| 察しる (sasshiru, guess) | 察しる | 察し | よう | 察しよう (sasshiyō, let's/probably guess) [356] | |
| 信じる (shinjiru, believe) | 信じる | 信じ | よう | 信じよう (shinjiyō, let's/probably believe) [357] | |
| 進ぜる (shinzeru, give) | 進ぜる | 進ぜ | よう | 進ぜよう (shinzeyō, let's/probably give) [358] [359] [360] | /emu→eũ→joː→ejoː/ |
| 得る (eru, get) | 得る | 得 | よう | 得よう (eyō, let's/probably get) | |
| Irregular verbs | |||||
| する (suru, do) | する | し | よう | しよう (shiyō, let's/probably do) | /semu→seũ→sjoː→sijoː/ |
| 勉強する (benkyō suru, study) | 勉強する | 勉強し | よう | 勉強しよう (benkyō shiyō, let's/probably study) | |
| 愛する (aisuru, love) | 愛する | 愛そ | う | 愛そう (aisō, let's/probably love) [361] | |
| 愛し | よう | 愛しよう (aishiyō, let's/probably love) [309] [362] | |||
| 達する (tassuru, reach) | 達する | 達そ | う | 達そう (tassō, let's/probably reach) [363] | |
| 達し | よう | 達しよう (tasshiyō, let's/probably reach) [364] | |||
| 察する (sassuru, guess) | 察する | 察し | よう | 察しよう (sasshiyō, let's/probably guess) [365] | |
| 信ずる (shinzuru, believe) | 信ずる | 信じ | よう | 信じよう (shinjiyō, let's/probably believe) [115] | |
| 進ずる (shinzuru, give) | 進ずる | 進じ 進ぜ | よう | 進じよう (shinjiyō, let's/probably give) [358] 進ぜよう (shinzeyō) [358] [366] | |
| 来る (kuru, come) | くる | こ | よう | 来よう (koyō, let's/probably come) | /komu→koũ→koː→kojoː/ |
| Verbal auxiliaries | |||||
| 〜ます(る) (‑masu(ru)) | ます(る) | ましょ | う | 〜ましょう (‑mashō, let's/probably …) | /semu→seũ→sjoː/ |
| です (desu, be) | です | でしょ | う | でしょう (deshō, probably be) | |
| だ (da, be) じゃ(ja) | だ じゃ | だ じゃ | ろう | だろう (darō, probably be) じゃろう(jarō) | /nitearamu→deaɾamu→d(j)aɾamu→d(j)aɾaũ→d(j)aɾɔː→d(j)aɾoː/ |
| 〜た (‑ta) 〜だ (‑da) | た だ | た だ | ろう | 〜たろう (‑tarō) 〜だろう (‑darō) | /teaɾamu→taɾamu→taɾaũ/daɾaũ→taɾɔː/daɾɔː→taɾoː/daɾoː/ |
| Adjective and adjectival auxiliaries | |||||
| 無い (nai, be nonexistent) | 無い | 無かろ | う | 無かろう (nakarō, be probably nonexistent) | /kuaɾamu→kaɾamu→kaɾaũ→kaɾɔː→kaɾoː/ |
| 良い (ii/yoi, be good) | いい よい | よかろ | う | 良かろう(yokarō, be probably good) | |
The volitional form is also used to describe intention -to omou (〜と思う) [367] an attempt -to suru (〜とする) or an imminent action -to shite iru (〜としている). [368]
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| I think I'm going to make a salad. | sarada o tsukurō to omou (サラダを作ろうと思う) | intention |
| I'll try to go to bed early. | hayaku neyō to suru (早く寝ようとする) | attempt |
| The dog is about to bark. | inu ga hoeyō to shite iru (犬が吠えようとしている) | imminent action |
Even with this new information, I remained silent. No words came. My first thought was, Oh, so he can talk? My next thought was that he sure had an odd way of speaking. It was not the way ordinary people would speak. But then again, the little two-foot Commendatore was in no way ordinary. So whatever his manner of speech, it shouldn't be surprising.
"But, honey, you kain do dat!"「でも、お嬢さま、そりゃできましねえだ」
[…] Lots of gentlemens might a' bought me but they wouldn't a' bought my Prissy, too, jes' to keep me frum grievin' and I thanks you. […] "Ah ain' gwine stand by an' have eve'ybody at de pahty sayin' how you ain' fotched up right. Ah has tole you an' tole you dat you kin allus tell a lady by dat she eat lak a bird. […]"
[…]
"You keep yo' shawl on yo' shoulders w'en you is in de sun, an' doan you go takin' off yo' hat w'en you is wahm," she commanded. […]
"No, you ain'," said Mammy grimly. […]
"Dis Miss Scarlett, ain' it? Dis hyah Peter, Miss Pitty's coachman. Doan step down in dat mud," he ordered severely, as Scarlett gathered up her skirts preparatory to descending. […] No'm, Ah ain' sho whut kine of furriners dey is. Miss Pitty, she say dey is Inlish but kain nobody unnerstan a' wud dey says. Yas'm 'tis pow'ful smoky an' de soot jes' ruinin' Miss Pitty's silk cuttins. It' frum de foun'ry an' de rollin' mills. An' de noise dey meks at night! Kain nobody sleep. […]
"Ah doan know."
" Bolitho came back from his holiday this morning—recalled by telegram. No one knows who sent it. The other man left last night. We'll catch him yet, though."「ボリソオは今朝、休暇の途中で帰って来たです。電報で呼び戻されたんだが、誰がその電報を打ったか、誰も知っておらん。で、もう一人の男は、昨夜どこかへ行ってしまったです。そのうちにわれわれは奴を捕らえますがね」
The color had crept back into the banker's face; he nodded with a slight effort. "Last time I looked at it was a week ago. It was there. No one else knew. No one. Had the panel built in long ago."銀行家の顔にはまた赤味がさしてきた。そして努力してうなずきながら「最後に絵を見たのは一瞬間前だった。たしかにここに在った。ほかにはだれも知っておらん。だれもだ。この羽目板をこしらえたのは、ずっと昔だからな」
"You listen to me," Sir Herbert Armstrong went on, whacking the table. "This business at the Wade Museum has got to be thrashed out. You're sure you haven't seen an English newspaper in four months, and don't know anything about it? Right! All the better! Here's every record verbatim, in these files. We have here the three people who handled the business through all its stages, up to the point where it was triumphantly crowned with failure . . ."「話というのはこうなんだ」とハーバート・アームストロング卿が、テーブルをたたきながらつづけた。「ウェイド博物館で起きたこの事件だが、これはなんとしてでも、真相を明らかにせんければならんのだよ。きみは四ヵ月もイギリスの新聞を読んでおらんのだから、事件のいきさつは、なにも知っておらんのだろうが、それはそれでよろしい。知らんでも心配ない! 捜査の経過は、ここに記録がそろっておる。このファイルがそれだ。それにまたこの事件は、ここに顔をそろえた三人が、それぞれ各段階を担当しておるんだ。結局ははなばなしい失敗に終わりはしたがね」
"Old Ellis!" he growled. "First time ever I hear anyone say old Ellis were any use for any purpose. I should 'a thought you know'd better than that yourself, Master Reginald. What do you suppose old Ellis can tell you better'n what I can about Betton Wood, and what call have he got to be put afore me, I should like to know. His father warn't woodman on the place: he were ploughman—that's what he was, and so anyone could tell you what knows; anyone could tell you that, I says."「エリス爺ですと!」彼は唸った。「あのろくでなしが何かの役に立つとは、こりゃ初耳じゃな。それはあなたさまもよおくご存知じゃろうがの。いったいどこを押したら、エリスおやじのほうがわしよりもあの森のことをよく知っとるちゅうことが出てくるんですかの。あいつが何をいいだすか、聞いてみたいものだて。あの爺はここの樵じゃねえ。畑仕事をする人間じゃ――それだけのこってさ。なに一つ、目新しいことは知っておらんはずじゃ」
"He doesn't know we know who you are, of course, or can bring you forward to confound him. And above all, he doesn't know that we've found out to our satisfaction that you couldn't have been in any car, anywhere, at eight-twenty that night, because you were at a party at a certain young lady's house from eight on. Now do you see what we're driving at? All you have to do is tell us at which point you left the car. All we're trying to establish is at what point, from what point on I should say, he took over the car alone. And is solely responsible for your wife's death. Have you any objection to helping us steam that out of him?"「彼は、彼と同乗していたあんたがどういう人物であるかが、われわれに明らかになっているのを知らんのです。まして、われわれがあんたのご援助を得て、彼のアリバイを打破しようなどとは、考えてもおりません。そしてなにより、あんたの行動が、われわれに満足できるまで確認ずみであるのを知っていないのです。あの夜の八時二十分に、どんな車にしろ、あんたが乗っているわけがなく、どんな場所にしろ、走っていることはできない。つまり、八時以後は、若いご婦人のパーティに出席しておられたのを知っておらんのです。これで、われわれの狙いがおわかりになったことと思います。あとは、あんたが車を降りられたのが、どの地点であるかをお聞かせ願うだけです。それでわれわれは、彼がどの地点で――どの地点からというべきでしょうが――ひとりで車を運転し、奥さんの死に、彼ひとりの責任があるのを立証することができます。いかがです? われわれを援助して、彼の口を割らせるのに反対はんさらんでしょうな?」
« Tu iras tout de même à La Gare avec Mouchebœuf, me dit M. Seurel. Meaulnes ne connaît pas le chemin de Vierzon. Il se perdra aux carrefours. Il ne sera pas au train pour trois heures. »「でもまあ、おまえは、ムーシュブフと駅まで行ってくれんか」とスーレル先生は言った。「モーヌは、ヴィエルゾンへの道を知っておらんからな。四つ辻のところで迷っとるだろう。三時の汽車には間にあうまいて」[“You’ll go to the station with Mouchebœuf all the same,” says Mr Seurel to me. “Meaulnes doesn’t know his way to Vierzon. He’d get lost at crossroads. He wouldn’t make it to the train at three.”]
Poručík Dub podíval se rozzlobené do bezstarostného obličeje dobrého vojáka Švejka a otázal se ho zlostně: „Znáte mne?"何の屈託も無さそうな――上官を眼中に置かないような――シュベイクの顔をつらつら眺めていたドウプ少尉は立腹して訊いた――「お前はわしを知っとるか?」
„Znám vás, pane lajtnant."
Poručík Dub zakoulel očima a zadupal: „Já vám povídám, že mě ještě neznáte."
Švejk odpověděl opět s tím bezstarostným klidem, jako když hlásí raport: „Znám vás, pane lajtnant, jste, poslušně hlásím, od našeho maršbataliónu."
„Vy mě ještě neznáte," křičel poznovu poručík Dub, „vy mne znáte možná z té dobré stránky, ale až mne poznáte z té špatné stránky. Já jsem zlý, nemyslete si, já každého přinutím až k pláči. Tak znáte mne, nebo mne neznáte?"
„Znám, pane lajtnant "
„Já vám naposled říkám, že mne neznáte, vy osle. Máte nějaké bratry?"
—I just wanted to say, […]. Ireland, they say, has the honour of being the only country which never persecuted the jews. Do you know that? No. And do you know why?「ちょっと言っておきたいことがあってな。…..アイルランドは、名誉なことに、ユダヤ人を迫害せぬ唯一の国になっとるそうだ。知っとるかね?知っとらん。では、なぜだかわかるかね?あいつらを絶対に国の中に入れぬからだよ。」
[…]
—Because she never let them in,
"You understand," von Flanagan said, pure misery in his voice, "not one single word has been said officially, anywhere or to anybody. Nobody in the police department has been told anything. The Estapoole family doesn't know anything. Nobody seems to know anything." His broad face began to deepen in hue. "And now, damn it," he said angrily, "you don't know anything."「わかっているだろうがね」とフォン・フラナガンが、声にいとも哀れな響きを混ぜて言った。「どこにおいても、何びとに対しても、公式的には、ただのひとことも発言されていないんだ。警察部内でも、誰一人、何一つ口にしておらん。エスタプール家も、何一つ知っとらん。何かを知っていそうな人間は、ただの一人もおらんときとる」彼の広い顔に、濃い血の気がさしてきた。「おまけに、こん畜生め」と彼は、怒ったように言った。「あんたまでが、何も知らんちゅうわけだ」
{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)"Well, sir, it's surprising, but it well may be a fact that neither of them does know exactly what that bird is, and that nobody in all this whole wide sweet world knows what it is, saving and excepting only your humble servant, Casper Gutman, Esquire."「あのふたりは鳥の正体をはっきりとは知っておらぬ。これは意外に思えることだが、事実と見てまちがいないようです。そうだとなると、この広い世界でそれを知っておるのは、あなたの忠実な友カスパー・グトマン氏ただひとりということになりますな」
{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)"According to what you say," said the Inspector bitterly, "you don't know any of the really important things. I thought you had something."「お前の言うことを聞いとると」と、警視は苦々しく「本当に重要なことはなにも知らんようだな。なにか知っとるとわしは睨んどったが」
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)Ham. To be, or not to be, that is the question:ハム 世に在る、世に在らぬ、それが疑問ぢゃ。[…]
[…]
First Clo. One that was a woman, sir; but, rest her soul, she's dead.
— Ah ! monsieur le maire, si vous ne l'avez pas sauvé, Dieu voulait sans doute le rappeler à lui.――あゝ! 村長樣、あなたがお助けになりましなかつたけれど、きつと神樣があいつ奴をお呼びになつてゐらしたんでございますよ。[― Ah! Mister Mayor, if you did not save him, no doubt God called him to Himself.]
Dɑs liebe Herʒ ſchlɑ̈gt nicht mehr vor Ungeduld, Sie ʒu ſehen, nicht etwɑ in einer benɑchbɑrten Kɑmmer wɑrtet ſie ɑuf den Ausgɑng meiner Erʒɑ̈hlung, oder meines Mɑ̈rchens; […] Ich hɑbe Ihnen weiter nichts ʒu ſɑgen,あのいとしい心もな、もうあんた樣に逢ひ度え逢ひ度えと云つて、どきどきしてもゐましねえ。其邊の室にでも忍んでゐて、私の話の終るのを、お伽噺の終るのを、待つてるんでもありましねえ。[…]
Да и мало ли за тебя молебщиков, тебе ль хворать?「[…]それにおまえ様のことを祈っておる者は大ぜいありますだで、おまえ様がわずらいなどなされるはずがござりましねえだよ」
[…]
— Про долг я понимаю, Григорий Васильевич, но какой нам тут долг, чтобы нам здесь оставаться, того ничего не пойму, — ответила твердо Марфа Игнатьевна.
[…]
— А и впрямь не дадут, — засмеялся и Митрий. — Спасибо, сударь, непременно выполним…
— Et tu n'as pas soupé ?――じゃ、晩のご飯は食べていないね?
— Dame ! non, mademoiselle, je n'ai pas eu le temps.
— On va te donner à souper. Ton oncle a-t-il du pain encore ?
— Peu, mademoiselle ; mais c'est de la poudre surtout qui lui manque. Voilà les châtaignes venues, et maintenant il n'a plus besoin que de poudre.
— Je vais te donner un pain pour lui et de la poudre. Dis-lui qu'il la ménage, elle est chère.
" If the reverend fathers," he said, " loved good cheer and soft lodging, few miles of riding would carry them to the priory of Brinxworth, where their quality could not but secure them the most honourable reception ; or if they preferred spending a penitential evening, they might turn down yonder wild glade, which would bring them to the hermitage of Copmanhurst, where a pious anchoret would make them sharers for the night of the shelter of his roof and the benefit of his prayers."「いや、もし神父さま方がだね、おいしいご馳走、やわらかいベッドがお好きだとおっしゃるならだよ、ここからもう二、三マイルおいでになるがようがすよ。すりゃ、ブリンクスワスの修道院がござるによってな。そこなら、もうあんた、上等とびきりのお接待は、ぜったいまちがいございましねえだよ。それとも、懺悔、悔改めの一夜をお明しになりたいとおっしゃるならば、あの向うの森の空地をくだっておいでになることだな。すれば、コマナーストの庵室ってのがござるによってな、そこの隠者さまなら、一夜のお宿だろうと、お祈りの功徳だろうと、よろこんで分けてくださるにさまってるだよね」
Rohkaistuaan mieltään viinillä Kaptah sanoi vaisulla äänellä: »Herrani, sytytetään soihtu, sillä valo ei täältä paista ulos ja tämä pimeys on hirveämpi manalan pimeyttä, jota ei kukaan voi välttää, mutta tähän pimeään olemme astuneet vapaaehtoisesti.»カプタは酒で気勢をつけると、いまにも消えいりそうな声でいった。「旦那様、炬火をつけましょう。つけたって、外から光が見えるようなことはありましねえだよ。第一こんなに何が何やらわからねえのは、死んだみてえな暗闇よりいけませんわ。この死も、もうのがれることはできましねえよ。だけど、わしらは自分たちで勝手に、こんなとこにへえったんでごぜえますからな」[When Kaptah gained courage with wine, he said with a voice that was just about to falter, “My Lord, let us light up a torch. Its light won’t be seen from the outside. That we cannot make anything out is, above all, worse than the darkness of death, which is impossible to escape. But we did willingly enter this place.”]
' It's noan Nelly ! ' answered Joseph. ' I sudn't shift for Nelly—nasty ill nowt as shoo is. Thank God ! shoo cannot stale t' sowl o' nob'dy ! Shoo wer niver soa handsome, but what a body mud look at her 'bout winking. It's yon flaysome, graceless quean, that's witched our lad, wi' her bold een and her forrard ways—till——Nay ! it fair brusts my heart ! He's forgotten all I've done for him, and made on him, and goan and riven up a whole row o' t' grandest currant-trees i' t' garden ! ' and here he lamented outright ; unmanned by a sense of his bitter injuries, and Earnshaw's ingratitude and dangerous condition.「ネリーの話じゃござりましねえ! ネリーがいやだから出てゆくわしでがすか?――意地のわるい、やくざな女にゃちげえねえが、ありがてえこった! ネリーにはひとの魂を盗むことはできねえ! あの女は器量もあんまりよくねえから、ひとがまぶしがってまともに顔が見られねえなんてことはありましねえだ。いけずうずうしい色目を使って口説まいて、うちの若旦那をたぶらかしたのは、そこにいるおっかねえ外道の王女さまでがすぞ――そのあげくに――いいやもう! わしや肝が煎れてなんねえわ! 若旦那は、この年月、わしが尽した忠義も丹誠もみんな忘れて、庭いちばんのスグリの木を、ごっそり引っこ抜いてしまわっしゃるとは!」ここで爺さんは手ばなしで泣き出しました。あまりに残酷な迫害を蒙ったくやしさやら、アーンショーの忘恩と、恋に眼がくらんでいる危ない身の上への嘆きやらで、意地も張りも抜けた風情でした。
Быть художником… Без горького, постоянного труда не бывает художников… а трудиться, думал я, глядя на его мягкие черты, слушая его неспешную речь — нет! трудиться ты не будешь, сдаться ты не сумеешь. Но не полюбить его не было возможности: сердце так и влеклось к нему.美術家になる……と自分では云つてゐるが、身を責めて倦まずに勉めなければ、美術家にはなれぬものである。けれども勉めるといふことは如何であらうかと思つて、密にガギンの擧動を窺へば、面相も優しく、言語も優雅である。いや、此男には勉められない、奮發せられない、と斷念ました。けれども之を愛せずには居られません。魂が如何も引寄せられるやうである。[Being an artist…… I thought to myself, being an artist is not without taking yourself to task and toiling tirelessly. But when I thought about what it would be like to toil, sneaking a look at Gagin’s countenance, all I saw was his delicate features and magnanimous manner. No, this man could not toil, he could never exert himself, I thought with resignation. But I cannot help but love him. It was almost as though my soul was drawn to him.]
The new old gentleman says:新しく来たほうの紳士が言った。
"If you please, let me explain. Nobody can read my hand but my brother there—so he copies for me. It's his hand you've got there, not mine."
'You cannot pass,' he said. The orcs stood still, and a dead silence fell. 'I am a servant of the Secret Fire, wielder of the flame of Anor. You cannot pass. The dark fire will not avail you, flame of Udûn. Go back to the Shadow! You cannot pass.'「きさまは渡ることはできぬ。」と、かれはいいました。オークどもはじっと立ちつくし、死の静けさがあたりをみたしました。「わしは神秘の火に仕える者、アノールの焰の使い手じゃ。きさまは渡ることはできぬ。暗き火、ウドゥンの焰はきさまの助けとはならぬ。常つ闇に戻るがよい! きさまは渡れぬぞ。」
[…]
'You cannot pass!' he said.
Чем знакомее лица, тем труднее являются они, тем неяснее их впечатление; их помнишь, а не видишь… а своего собственного лица никак и не представишь… Малейшая отдельная черта известна, а целого образа не составляется.面相を見識つてゐれば居るほど、浮び難くて、其印象が判然しない、憶出せても目に見えない……自分の顏などは到底も想像せられないもので、細い局部は明亮するが、全體が成立たない。[The more familiar the faces, the more difficult they are to picture, the less clear their impression; you cannot see them even if you can recall them…… It is impossible to visualize even your own face; the most minute feature is clear, but the whole image will not come together.]
Чем знакомее лица, тем труднее являются они, тем неяснее их впечатление; их помнишь, а не видишь… а своего собственного лица никак и не представишь… Малейшая отдельная черта известна, а целого образа не составляется.面貌を見識ツてゐればゐるほど、浮びにくゝて、其印象が判然しない、憶出せても目に見えない……自身の顏などは到底想像しられないもので……瑣末な一局部は明亮にわかるが、全體が成立たない。[The more familiar the faces, the more difficult they are to picture, the less clear their impression; you cannot see them even if you can recall them…… It is impossible to visualize even your own face…… The most minute feature is clearly known, but the whole image will not come together.]
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)He was a penniless man, some accounts say he was a bankrupt, and his only way of securing a ship was to get someone to entrust him with a command. He went first to King John II of Portugal, who listened to him, made difficulties, and then arranged for an expedition to start without his knowledge, a purely Portuguese expedition. This highly diplomatic attempt to steal a march on an original man failed, as it deserved to fail; the crew became mutinous, the captain lost heart and returned (1483). Columbus then went to the Court of Spain.コロㇺブスは、文無しの素寒貧である、破產者だと云ふ記錄さへある。其處で船を手に入れる方法は、誰かの許に行つて指揮權を委託して貰ふ外に道はない。そこでまづ葡萄牙國王ジョン二世に詣つた。王はコロㇺブスに耳を傾けたが樣々に難癖をつけて置いて、一方裏に廻つてコロㇺブスに知らせずに純粹の葡萄牙人の探檢隊を組織して出航の凖備をせさせた。倂しコロㇺブスの如き天才を出し拔かうと云ふ樣な大それた騙し打駈引きの企てなぞは成る筈がない、當然、氣味善くも失敗に歸した、船員が叛き出し船長は勇氣を喪つて歸つて來たのである。(一四八三年)。コロㇺブスはついで西班牙宮廷に詣つた。
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)[…] non quod eas amem, sed ut amem te, deus meus. […] amemus, curramus.それは私がそんなものを愛するが爲めではなく、私の神よ、貴下を愛しようといふのだからで厶います。[…]我々に愛しさせて下さい、我々に驅けさせて下さい。[It is not for I love them, but for I may love Thee, my God. […] Let us love, let us run.]
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)"Who was this man?" said Abner.「だれなんだね、その男というのは?」と、アブナーが言った。
"They will not tell who he was."
"Why not?"
"Now, Abner," cried Ward, "why not, indeed! Because there never was any such man. The story is a lie out of the whole cloth. Those two devils are guilty as hell. The proof is all dead against them."
Maybe you girls didn't know it, but they've got every road, too, every wagon lane and bridle path, except the McDonough road.おまえたちのような娘は知らんじゃろうが、やつらはマクドナ街道のほか、道路という道路は、馬車の通る道も、みんな押えてしまったのじゃ。
„Gerɑde wie ich, gerɑde wie ich", ruft der Jüngling begeiſtert ɑus und ʒweifelt nicht lɑ̈nger, dɑß ɑuch er ein hoher Genius iſt trotʒ ſeinem ɑngebeteten Jdol.「まったくおれのようだ。おれと寸分ちがわぬ」と、その青年は感激して叫ぶとともに、自分もまた崇拝せる偶像に劣らず偉大な天才だということを、もはや疑わんであろう。[“Just like me. Not unlike me at all,” the youth cries in high delight, no longer doubting that he, too, is a great genius, no less than the idol he reveres.]
"If you had had as much experience of alligators as I have, you would n't talk like that. You dredge an alligator once and he's convinced. It's the last you hear of him. He would n't come back for pie. If there's one thing that an alligator is more down on than another, it's being dredged. Besides, they were not simply shoved out of the way ; the most of the scoopful were scooped aboard ; they emptied them into the hold ; and when they had got a trip, they took them to Orleans to the Government works."「あんたもわたしぐらいワニの経験があったら、そんなことは言わんでしょうね。一度浚い出すと、ワニはちゃんと覚えていますよ。もう二度と姿を見せません。もう金輪際きませんよ。ワニにいくらかでも我慢がならないものがあるとすれば、それは浚い出されることですよ。それに、ただ押し出すんじゃない。すくったのは大抵船の上へすくい上げるんです。それを船倉に入れる。そして旅が終るとオーリンズから官製工場へ持っていくんです」
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