Lick Observatory

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Lick Observatory
Lick Observatory Refractor.jpg
The James Lick telescope, housed in the South (large) Dome of main building
Alternative nameslick OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
Named after James Lick   OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
Organization
Observatory code 662   OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
Locationnear San Jose, California
Coordinates 37°20′28″N121°38′35″W / 37.3411°N 121.6431°W / 37.3411; -121.6431
Altitude1,283 m (4,209 ft) OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
Website ucolick.org/main/ OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
Telescopes
Usa edcp relief location map.png
Red pog.svg
Location of Lick Observatory
  Commons-logo.svg Related media on Commons
[ edit on Wikidata]

The Lick Observatory is an astronomical observatory owned and operated by the University of California. It is on the summit of Mount Hamilton, in the Diablo Range just east of San Jose, California, United States. The observatory is managed by the University of California Observatories, with headquarters on the University of California, Santa Cruz campus, where its scientific staff moved in the mid-1960s. It is named after James Lick.

Contents

The first new moon of Jupiter to be identified since the time of Galileo, Amalthea, the planet's fifth moon, was discovered at this observatory in 1892.

Early history

Lick Observatory is the world's first permanently occupied mountain-top observatory. [1] The observatory, in a Classical Revival style structure, was constructed between 1876 and 1887, from a bequest from James Lick of $700,000, equivalent to $22,799,259in 2022. [2] [3] Lick, originally a carpenter and piano maker, had arrived from Peru in San Francisco, California, in late 1847; after accruing significant wealth he began making various donations in 1873. [4] In his last deed he chose the site atop Mount Hamilton, [4] and was buried there in 1887 under the future site of the telescope, [2] with a brass tablet bearing the inscription, "Here lies the body of James Lick". [5]

Layout of the Lick Observatory. The dome housing the 91-centimeter (36-inch) Great Lick refractor telescope is on the right. LickObservatoryDiagram.jpg
Layout of the Lick Observatory. The dome housing the 91-centimeter (36-inch) Great Lick refractor telescope is on the right.
Lick Observatory in 1900 Lick Observatory.JPG
Lick Observatory in 1900

Lick additionally negotiated that Santa Clara County construct a "first-class road" to the summit, completed in 1876. [2] Lick chose John Wright, of San Francisco's Wright & Sanders firm of architects, to design both the Observatory and the Astronomer's House. [6] All of the construction materials had to be brought to the site by horse and mule-drawn wagons, which could not negotiate a steep grade. To keep the grade below 6.5%, the road had to take a very winding and sinuous path, which the modern-day road (California State Route 130) still follows. Tradition maintains that this road has exactly 365 turns (although there is uncertainty as to what should count as a turn). The road is closed when there is snow. [7]

The first telescope installed at the observatory was a 12-inch (300-millimeter) refractor made by Alvan Clark. Astronomer E. E. Barnard used the telescope to make "exquisite photographs of comets and nebulae", according to D. J. Warner of Warner & Swasey Company. [2]

The Great Lick 91-centimeter (36-inch) refractor, in an 1889 engraving Lick Telescope 1889.jpg
The Great Lick 91-centimeter (36-inch) refractor, in an 1889 engraving

In 1880, a 36-inch (91-centimeter) lens was commissioned to Alvan Clark & Sons, for $51,000 (equivalent to $1,550,000in 2022). Manufacturing of the lens took until 1885 and it was delivered to the observatory on December 29, 1886. [4] Warner & Swasey designed and built the telescope mounting. The telescope, built with this lens, became the world's largest refracting telescope from when it saw first light on January 3, 1888, until the construction of Yerkes Observatory in 1897. [2]

Under the University of California

In May 1888, the observatory was turned over to the Regents of the University of California, [8] and it became the first permanently occupied mountain-top observatory in the world. Edward Singleton Holden was the first director. The location provided excellent viewing performance because of lack of ambient light and pollution; additionally, the night air at the top of Mt. Hamilton is extremely calm. Often a layer of low coastal clouds invades the valley below, especially on nights from late-spring to mid-summer, a phenomenon known in California as the June Gloom. On nights when the observatory remains above that layer, light pollution can be greatly reduced.[ citation needed ]

E. E. Barnard used the telescope in 1892 to discover a fifth moon of Jupiter, Amalthea. This was the first addition to Jupiter's known moons since Galileo observed the planet through his parchment tube and spectacle lens. The telescope provided spectra for W. W. Campbell's work on the radial velocities of stars. [2]

In 1905 (Jan. 5 and Feb. 27), Charles Dillon Perrine discovered the sixth and seventh moons of Jupiter (Elara and Himalia) on photographs taken with the 36-inch Crossley reflecting telescope which he had recently rebuilt. [9] [10]

In 1928, Donald C. Shane studied carbon stars, and was able to distinguish them into spectral classes R0–R9 and N0–N7 (on this scale N7 is the reddest and R0 the bluest). [11] This was an expansion of Annie Jump Cannon of Harvard's work on carbon stars that had divided them into R and N types. [11] The N stars have more cyanogen and the R stars have more carbon. [11]

On May 21, 1939, during a nighttime fog that engulfed the summit, a U.S. Army Air Force Northrop A-17 two-seater attack plane crashed into the main building. Because a scientific meeting was being held elsewhere, the only staff member present was Nicholas Mayall. Nothing caught fire and the two individuals in the building were unharmed.

The pilot of the plane, Lt. Richard F. Lorenz, and passenger Private W. E. Scott were killed instantly. The telephone line was broken by the crash, so no help could be called for at first. Eventually help arrived together with numerous reporters and photographers, who kept arriving almost all night long. Evidence of their numbers could be seen the next day by the litter of flash bulbs carpeting the parking lot.

The press widely covered the accident and many reports emphasized the luck in not losing a large cabinet of spectrograms which was knocked over by the crash coming through an astronomer's office window. There was no damage to the telescope dome. [12] [13] [14] [15]

In 1950, the California state legislature appropriated funds for a 120-inch (300-centimeter) reflector telescope, which was completed in 1959. The observatory additionally has a 24-inch (61-centimeter) Cassegrain reflector dedicated to photoelectric measurements of star brightness, and received a pair of 20-inch (51-centimeter) astrographs from the Carnegie Corporation. [2]

Time-signal service

In 1886, Lick Observatory begins supplying Railroad Standard Time to the Southern Pacific Railroad, and to other businesses, over telegraph lines. The signal was generated by a clock manufactured by E. Howard & Co. specifically for the Observatory, and which included an electric apparatus for transmitting the time signal over telegraph lines. While most of the nation's railroads received their time signal from the U.S. Naval Observatory time signal via Western Union's telegraph lines, the Lick Observatory Time-Signal was used by railroads from the West coast all the way to Colorado. [16]

21st century

Lick Observatory from Grant Ranch Park Lick Observatory from Park.jpg
Lick Observatory from Grant Ranch Park
Lick Observatory and Mount Hamilton, looking east on takeoff from Mineta San Jose International Airport Lick Observatory aerial.jpg
Lick Observatory and Mount Hamilton, looking east on takeoff from Mineta San José International Airport

With the growth of San Jose, and the rest of Silicon Valley, light pollution became a problem for the observatory. In the 1970s, a site in the Santa Lucia Mountains at Junípero Serra Peak, southeast of Monterey, was evaluated for possible relocation of many of the telescopes.[ citation needed ] However, funding for the move was not available, and in 1980 San Jose began a program to reduce the effects of lighting, most notably replacing all streetlamps with low pressure sodium lamps. The result is that the Mount Hamilton site remains a viable location for a major working observatory.

The International Astronomical Union named Asteroid 6216 San Jose to honor the city's efforts toward reducing light pollution. [17]

In 2006, there were 23 families in residence, plus typically between two and ten visiting astronomers from the University of California campuses, who stay in dormitories while working at the observatory. The little town of Mount Hamilton atop the mountain has its own police and a post office, and until 2005 had a one-room K-8 school. [18]

In 2008, there were 38 people residing on the mountain; the chef and commons dinner were decommissioned.[ citation needed ] By 2013, with continuing budget and staff cuts there remain only about nineteen residents and it is common for the observers to work from remote observing stations rather than make the drive, partly as a result of the business office raising the cost to stay in the dorms.[ citation needed ] The swimming pool has been closed. [19]

In 2013, one of Lick Observatory's key funding sources was scheduled for elimination in 2018, which many worried would result in the closing of the entire observatory. [20] [21]

In November 2014, the University of California announced its intention to continue support of Lick Observatory. [22]

Telescopes at Lick Observatory are used by researchers from many campuses of the University of California system. Current topics of research carried out at Lick include exoplanets, supernovae, active galactic nuclei, planetary science, and development of new adaptive optics technologies.

In 2015, Google donated $1 million to the observatory over two years. [23]

In August 2020, the observatory was in danger of being destroyed by the rapidly growing SCU Lightning Complex fires. Firefighters were on standby at Lick Observatory to defend the buildings if necessary. [24] As of the evening of August 19, 2020, the fire was on observatory property and moving quickly. [25] While the residences on Mt. Hamilton sustained some damage during the following night, the telescopes and domes survived. [26]

Significant discoveries

Simulation of Amalthea orbiting Jupiter AmaltheaSimulation.jpg
Simulation of Amalthea orbiting Jupiter

The following astronomical objects were discovered at Lick Observatory:

In addition to observations of natural phenomena, Lick was also the location of the first laser range-finding observation of the Apollo 11 reflector, although this was only for confirmation purposes and no ongoing range-finding work was performed. [40]

Equipment

Lick Observatory's Shane 120-inch (3-meter) telescope (center) along with the nearby Automated Planet Finder 100-inch (250-centimeter) reflector Lick Observatory Shane Telescope.jpg
Lick Observatory's Shane 120-inch (3-meter) telescope (center) along with the nearby Automated Planet Finder 100-inch (250-centimeter) reflector

Below is a list of the nine telescopes currently operating at the observatory: [41]

Below is a list of equipment that formerly operated at the observatory:

See also

Related Research Articles

Timeline of telescopes, observatories, and observing technology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lowell Observatory</span> Astronomical observatory and historic landmark in Arizona, US

Lowell Observatory is an astronomical observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona, United States. Lowell Observatory was established in 1894, placing it among the oldest observatories in the United States, and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1965. In 2011, the Observatory was named one of "The World's 100 Most Important Places" by Time Magazine. It was at the Lowell Observatory that the dwarf planet Pluto was discovered in 1930 by Clyde Tombaugh.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yerkes Observatory</span> Astronomical observatory in Wisconsin, USA

Yerkes Observatory is an astronomical observatory located in Williams Bay, Wisconsin, United States. The observatory was operated by the University of Chicago Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics from its founding in 1897 to 2018. Ownership was transferred to the non-profit Yerkes Future Foundation (YFF) in May 2020, which began restoration and renovation of the historic building and grounds. Re-opening for public tours and programming began May 27, 2022.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Refracting telescope</span> Type of optical telescope

A refracting telescope is a type of optical telescope that uses a lens as its objective to form an image. The refracting telescope design was originally used in spyglasses and astronomical telescopes but is also used for long-focus camera lenses. Although large refracting telescopes were very popular in the second half of the 19th century, for most research purposes, the refracting telescope has been superseded by the reflecting telescope, which allows larger apertures. A refractor's magnification is calculated by dividing the focal length of the objective lens by that of the eyepiece.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Charles Dillon Perrine</span> American astronomer (1867–1951)

Charles Dillon Perrine was an American astronomer at the Lick Observatory in California (1893-1909) who moved to Cordoba, Argentina to accept the position of Director of the Argentine National Observatory (1909-1936). The Cordoba Observatory under Perrine's direction made the first attempts to prove Einstein's theory of relativity by astronomical observation of the deflection of starlight near the Sun during the solar eclipse of October 10, 1912 in Cristina (Brazil), and the solar eclipse of August 21, 1914 at Feodosia, Crimea, Russian Empire. Rain in 1912 and clouds in 1914 prevented results.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">James Edward Keeler</span> American astronomer

James Edward Keeler was an American astronomer. He was an early observer of galaxies using photography, as well as the first to show observationally that the rings of Saturn do not rotate as a solid body.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hale Telescope</span> Telescope at Palomar Observatory in California, USA

The Hale Telescope is a 200-inch (5.1 m), f/3.3 reflecting telescope at the Palomar Observatory in San Diego County, California, US, named after astronomer George Ellery Hale. With funding from the Rockefeller Foundation in 1928, he orchestrated the planning, design, and construction of the observatory, but with the project ending up taking 20 years he did not live to see its commissioning. The Hale was groundbreaking for its time, with double the diameter of the second-largest telescope, and pioneered many new technologies in telescope mount design and in the design and fabrication of its large aluminum coated "honeycomb" low thermal expansion Pyrex mirror. It was completed in 1949 and is still in active use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">James Lick telescope</span> Telescope in California, United States

The James Lick Telescope is a refracting telescope built in 1888. It has a lens 91 centimetres (36 in) in diameter—a major achievement in its day. The instrument remains in operation and public viewing is allowed on a limited basis. Also called the "Great Lick Refractor" or simply "Lick Refractor", it was the largest refracting telescope in the world until 1897 and now ranks third, after the 40-inch refractor at the Yerkes Observatory and the Swedish 1-m Solar Telescope. The telescope is located at the University of California's Lick Observatory atop Mount Hamilton at an elevation of 1,283 metres (4,209 ft) above sea level. The instrument is housed inside a dome that is powered by hydraulic systems that raise and lower the floor, rotate the dome and drive the clock mechanism to track the Earth's rotation. The original hydraulic arrangement still operates today, with the exception that the original wind-powered pumps that once filled the reservoirs have been replaced with electric pumps. James Lick is entombed below the floor of the observing room of the telescope.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">C. Donald Shane telescope</span>

The C. Donald Shane telescope is a 120-inch (3.05-meter) reflecting telescope located at the Lick Observatory in San Jose, California. It was named after astronomer C. Donald Shane in 1978, who led the effort to acquire the necessary funds from the California Legislature, and who then oversaw the telescope's construction. It is the largest and most powerful telescope at the Lick Observatory, and was the second-largest optical telescope in the world when it was commissioned in 1959.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anna L. Nickel telescope</span>

The Anna L. Nickel telescope is a 1-meter reflecting telescope located at Lick Observatory in the U.S. state of California.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carnegie telescope</span>

The Carnegie telescope is a twin 20-inch (510 mm) refractor telescope located at Lick Observatory in California, United States. The double telescope's construction began in the 1930s with a grant from the Carnegie institution, although it was not completed until the 1960s when a second lens was added. The telescope is not designed for visual observation, rather it has two lenses used for taking photographs for a specific wavelength recorded on a film emulsion. It was used for photographic sky surveys in the late 20th century, which were successfully completed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coudé Auxiliary Telescope</span> Telescope near San Jose, California, US

The Coudé Auxiliary Telescope (CAT) is a coudé focus telescope located at the Lick Observatory near San Jose, California, south of Shane Dome, Tycho Brahe Peak.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crossley telescope</span> Reflecting telescope located at Lick Observatory in California

The Crossley telescope is a 36-inch (910 mm) reflecting telescope located at Lick Observatory in the U.S. state of California. It was used between 1895 and 2010, and was donated to the observatory by Edward Crossley, its namesake.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kenwood Astrophysical Observatory</span>

The Kenwood Astrophysical Observatory was the personal observatory of George Ellery Hale, constructed by his father, William E. Hale, in 1890 at the family home in the Kenwood section of Chicago. It was here that the spectroheliograph, which Hale had invented while attending MIT, was first put to practical use; and it was here that Hale established the Astrophysical Journal. Kenwood's principal instrument was a twelve-inch refractor, which was used in conjunction with a Rowland grating as part of the spectroheliograph. Hale hired Ferdinand Ellerman as an assistant; years later, the two would work together again at the Mount Wilson Observatory.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great refractor</span>

Great refractor refers to a large telescope with a lens, usually the largest refractor at an observatory with an equatorial mount. The preeminence and success of this style in observational astronomy defines an era in modern telescopy in the 19th and early 20th century. Great refractors were large refracting telescopes using achromatic lenses. They were often the largest in the world, or largest in a region. Despite typical designs having smaller apertures than reflectors, great refractors offered a number of advantages and were popular for astronomy. It was also popular to exhibit large refractors at international exhibits, and examples of this include the Trophy Telescope at the 1851 Great Exhibition, and the Yerkes Great Refractor at the 1893 World's Fair in Chicago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nicholas U. Mayall</span> American astronomer

Nicholas Ulrich Mayall was an American observational astronomer. After obtaining his doctorate from the University of California, Berkeley, Mayall worked at the Lick Observatory, where he remained from 1934 to 1960, except for a brief period at MIT's Radiation Laboratory during World War II.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenwich 28-inch refractor</span>

The Greenwich 28-inch refractor is a telescope at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, where it was first installed in 1893. It is a 28-inch ( 71 cm) aperture objective lens telescope, otherwise known as a refractor, and was made by the telescope maker Sir Howard Grubb. The achromatic lens was made Grubb from Chance Brothers glass. The mounting is older however and dates to the 1850s, having been designed by Royal Observatory director George Airy and the firm Ransomes and Simms. The telescope is noted for its spherical dome which extends beyond the tower, nicknamed the "onion" dome. Another name for this telescope is "The Great Equatorial" which it shares with the building, which housed an older but smaller telescope previously.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yerkes 41-inch reflector</span> 40-inch aperture reflecting telescope at the Yerkes Observatory

Yerkes 41-inch reflector is a 40-inch aperture (101.6 cm) reflecting telescope at the Yerkes Observatory, that was completed in 1968. It is known as the 41 inch to avoid confusion with a 40 inch refractor at the observatory. Optically it is a Ritchey–Chrétien design, and the main mirror uses low expansion glass. The telescope was used as a testbed for an adaptive optics system in the 1990s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Meudon Great Refractor</span>

Meudon Great Refractor is a double telescope with lenses, in Meudon, France. It is a twin refracting telescope built in 1891, with one visual and one photographic, on a single square-tube together on an equatorial mount, inside a dome. The Refractor was built for the Meudon Observatory, and is the largest double doublet refracting telescope in Europe, but about the same size as several telescopes in this period, when this style of telescope was popular. Other large telescopes of a similar type include the James Lick telescope (91.4), Potsdam Great Refractor (80+50 cm), and the Greenwich 28 inch refractor (71.1 cm).

References

Citations

  1. ↑ "The Lick Observatory Collections Project: Building the Observatory". collections.ucolick.org. Retrieved March 19, 2018.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Kirby-Smith, H. T. (1976). U.S. Observatories . New York, US: Litton Educational Publishing, Inc. ISBN   978-0-442-24451-4.
  3. ↑ "Lick Observatory, Mt. Hamilton, Cal". loc.gov. Retrieved March 19, 2018.
  4. 1 2 3 Foote, H.S. (1888). Santa Clara County, California. Chicago, Illinois: The Lewis Publishing Company. pp. 126–133.
  5. ↑ Calhoun, Liz. ""To The Unmounted Lens" from Hand-book of the Lick Observatory". University Lowbrow Astronomers. University of Michigan . Retrieved December 31, 2018.
  6. ↑ California Architect and Business News, 9/1881; Lick Observatory Archives.
  7. ↑ Mount Hamilton (California)
  8. ↑ "The Lick Observatory Completed (from San Francisco Alto May 22, 1888)". The New York Times. May 29, 1888. p. 5. ISSN   0362-4331. Sometime this week the Trustees of the James Lick Estate will convey to the Board of Regents of the State University the Mount Hamilton Observatory.
  9. 1 2 Perrine, C. D. (March 30, 1905). "The Seventh Satellite of Jupiter". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 17 (101): 62–63. Bibcode:1905PASP...17...56.. doi: 10.1086/121624 . JSTOR   40691209.
  10. 1 2 Porter, J.G. (1905). "Discovery of a Sixth Satellite of Jupiter". Astronomical Journal. 24 (18): 154B. Bibcode:1905AJ.....24..154P. doi: 10.1086/103612 .
  11. 1 2 3 "Observing Carbon Stars". Sky & Telescope. May 22, 2018. Retrieved December 11, 2019.
  12. ↑ Mayall, Nicholas Ulrich (1970). "Nicholas U. Mayall". In Stone, Irving (ed.). There was light: Autobiography of a university: Berkeley, 1868–1968. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc. pp. 117–8.
  13. ↑ "2 Die as Army Plane Hits Lick Observatory, Damaging Offices and Destroying Records". The New York Times (Late City ed.). Associated Press. May 22, 1939. p. 1. ISSN   0362-4331. Lost in thick fog, an army attack plane crashed into Lick Astronomical Observatory of the University of California on Mount Hamilton tonight. Its two occupants were killed. They were Lieut. R. F. Lorenz, 25, of March Field, the pilot, and Private W. E. Scott, a passenger.
  14. ↑ Airplane Crash at the Lick Observatory Archived August 27, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
  15. ↑ The Lick Observatory A-17A Archived April 22, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
  16. ↑ Holden, Edward Singleton (1888). Hand-book of the Lick Observatory of the University of California. University of California Libraries. San Francisco : The Bancroft Company. pp.  99.
  17. ↑ UCSC, Lick Observatory designate asteroid for the city of San Jose Archived August 17, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  18. ↑ "Mt. Hamilton Elementary – School Directory Details (CA Dept of Education)". CA Dept of Education. Retrieved October 15, 2015.
  19. ↑ Black, Annetta. "Lick Observatory". Atlas Obscura. Retrieved December 31, 2018.
  20. ↑ Hoban, Virgie (September 2, 2014). "Facing a Waning Future". The Daily Californian . Berkeley, California. pp. 1+. Retrieved September 4, 2014.
  21. ↑ Overbye, Dennis (June 3, 2014). "A Star-Gazing Palace's Hazy Future" . New York Times . Retrieved September 4, 2014.
  22. ↑ Lebow, Hilary (November 4, 2014). "UC Confirms Continued Support of Lick Observatory". UC Santa Cruz . pp. 1+. Retrieved November 4, 2014.
  23. ↑ "Google gives Lick Observatory $1 million – Astronomy Now" . Retrieved December 11, 2019.
  24. ↑ Alyssa Pereira (August 19, 2020). "The 132-year-old Lick Observatory threatened by SCU Lightning Complex Fire". sfgate.com. Retrieved August 19, 2020.
  25. ↑ Lick Observatory (August 19, 2020). "News as of 5pm". Instagram. Archived from the original on December 23, 2021. Retrieved August 19, 2020.
  26. ↑ Tim Stephens (August 20, 2020). "UC's Lick Observatory threatened by fire" . Retrieved August 20, 2020.
  27. ↑ Shankland, Robert S. (1974). "Michelson and his interferometer". Physics Today. American Institute of Physics. 27 (4): 37–43. Bibcode:1974PhT....27d..37S. doi: 10.1063/1.3128534 .
  28. ↑ Proctor, Mary (March 5, 1905). "Jupiter's Newly Discovered Moons and Solar Cyclones" (PDF). The New York Times . New York City . Retrieved October 1, 2014.
  29. ↑ Bernard, E. E. (October 4, 1892). "Discovery and Observations of a Fifth Satellite to Jupiter". Astronomical Journal . 12: 81. Bibcode:1892AJ.....12...81B. doi:10.1086/101715.
  30. ↑ Nicholson, S. B. (1914). "Discovery of the Ninth Satellite of Jupiter". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 26 (1): 197–198. Bibcode:1914PASP...26..197N. doi:10.1086/122336.
  31. ↑ "JPL Small-Body Database Browser: 29075 (1950 DA)" (2018-02-09 last obs.). Jet Propulsion Laboratory . Retrieved July 5, 2018.
  32. ↑ Fischer, Debra A.; Marcy, Geoffrey W. (March 1, 2008). "Five Planets Orbiting 55 Cancri". The Astrophysical Journal. 675 (1): 790–801. arXiv: 0712.3917 . Bibcode:2008ApJ...675..790F. doi:10.1086/525512. S2CID   55779685.
  33. ↑ "A Triple-Planet System Orbiting Ups Andromedae". San Francisco State University . Lick Observatory. Retrieved June 23, 2008.
  34. 1 2 Fischer, Debra A.; et al. (2001). "Planetary Companions to HD 12661, HD 92788, and HD 38529 and Variations in Keplerian Residuals of Extrasolar Planets". The Astrophysical Journal. 551 (2): 1107–1118. Bibcode:2001ApJ...551.1107F. doi: 10.1086/320224 .
  35. ↑ Marcy, Geoffrey W.; Butler, R. Paul; et al. (1998). "A Planetary Companion to a Nearby M4 Dwarf, Gliese 876". The Astrophysical Journal. 505 (2): L147–L149. arXiv: astro-ph/9807307 . Bibcode:1998ApJ...505L.147M. doi:10.1086/311623. S2CID   2679107.
  36. ↑ Fischer, Debra A.; Marcy, Geoffrey W.; et al. (2002). "A Second Planet Orbiting 47 Ursae Majoris". The Astrophysical Journal. 564 (2): 1028–1034. Bibcode:2002ApJ...564.1028F. doi: 10.1086/324336 .
  37. ↑ Fath, E. A. (1909). "The spectra of some spiral nebulae and globular star clusters". Lick Observatory Bulletin. 149: 71–77. Bibcode:1909LicOB...5...71F. doi:10.5479/ADS/bib/1909LicOB.5.71F. hdl: 2027/uc1.c2914873 .
  38. ↑ Curtis, H. D. (1918). "Descriptions of 762 Nebulae and Clusters Photographed with the Crossley Reflector". Publications of the Lick Observatory. XIII: 9. Bibcode:1918PLicO..13....9C.
  39. ↑ Antonucci, R. R. J.; Miller, J. S. (October 15, 1985). "Spectropolarimetry and the Nature of NGC 1068". The Astrophysical Journal. 297: 621–632. Bibcode:1985ApJ...297..621A. doi:10.1086/163559.
  40. ↑ "History of Laser Ranging". University of Texas Center for Space Research. Retrieved January 2, 2019.
  41. ↑ "Telescopes of the Lick Observatory". University of California Observatories. Archived from the original on December 12, 2018. Retrieved December 31, 2018.

Sources

Further reading

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