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The 20 July plot was a failed attempt to assassinate Adolf Hitler, the chancellor and leader of Nazi Germany, and overthrow the Nazi regime on 20 July 1944. The plotters were part of the German resistance, mainly composed of Wehrmacht officers. The leader of the conspiracy, Claus von Stauffenberg, tried to kill Hitler by detonating an explosive hidden in a briefcase. However, due to the location of the bomb at the time of detonation, the blast only dealt Hitler minor injuries. The planners' subsequent coup attempt also failed and resulted in a purge of the Wehrmacht.
A cover-up is an attempt, whether successful or not, to conceal evidence of wrongdoing, error, incompetence, or other embarrassing information. Research has distinguished personal cover-ups from relational cover-ups.
The 1953 Iranian coup d'état, known in Iran as the 28 Mordad coup d'état, was the U.S.- and British-instigated, Iranian army-led overthrow of the elected Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh in favor of strengthening the monarchical rule of the shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, on 19 August 1953, with one of the significant objectives being to protect British oil interests in Iran. It was aided by the United States and the United Kingdom.
The Tudeh Party of Iran is an Iranian communist party. Formed in 1941, with Soleiman Mirza Eskandari as its head, it had considerable influence in its early years and played an important role during Mohammad Mosaddegh's campaign to nationalize the Anglo-Persian Oil Company and his term as prime minister. From the Iran crisis of 1946 onwards, Tudeh became a pro-Soviet organization and remained prepared to carry out the dictates of the Kremlin, even if it meant sacrificing Iranian political independence and sovereignty. The crackdown that followed the 1953 coup against Mosaddegh is said to have "destroyed" the party, although a remnant persisted. The party still exists but has remained much weaker as a result of its banning in Iran and mass arrests by the Islamic Republic in 1982, as well as the executions of political prisoners in 1988. Tudeh identified itself as the historical offshoot of the Communist Party of Persia.
Blowback is the unintended consequences and unwanted side-effects of a covert operation. To the civilians suffering the blowback of covert operations, the effect typically manifests itself as "random" acts of political violence without a discernible, direct cause; because the public—in whose name the intelligence agency acted—are unaware of the effected secret attacks that provoked revenge (counter-attack) against them.
A false flag operation is an act committed with the intent of disguising the actual source of responsibility and pinning blame on another party. The term "false flag" originated in the 16th century as an expression meaning an intentional misrepresentation of someone's allegiance. The term was famously used to describe a ruse in naval warfare whereby a vessel flew the flag of a neutral or enemy country in order to hide its true identity. The tactic was originally used by pirates and privateers to deceive other ships into allowing them to move closer before attacking them. It later was deemed an acceptable practice during naval warfare according to international maritime laws, provided the attacking vessel displayed its true flag once an attack had begun.
The "Saving Iran's Great Uprising" more commonly known as the Nojeh coup d'état, was a plan to overthrow the newly established Islamic Republic of Iran and its government of Abolhassan Banisadr and Ruhollah Khomeini.
The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) has repeatedly intervened in the internal affairs of Iran, from the Mosaddegh coup of 1953 to the present day. The CIA is said to have collaborated with the last Shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Its personnel may have been involved in the Iran-Contra affair of the 1980s. More recently in 2007-8 CIA operatives were claimed to be supporting the Sunni terrorist group Jundallah against Iran, but these claims were refuted by a later investigation.
The United States (U.S.) Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) has been involved in covert actions and contingency planning in Iraq ever since the 1958 overthrow of the Iraqi monarchy, although the historiography of Iraq–United States relations prior to the 1980s is considered relatively underdeveloped, with the first in-depth academic studies being published in the 2010s.
Alternative theories have been proposed regarding the Oklahoma City bombing. These theories reject all, or part of, the official government report. Some of these theories focus on the possibility of additional co-conspirators that were never indicted or additional explosives planted inside the Murrah Federal building. Other theories allege that government employees and officials, including US President Bill Clinton, knew of the impending bombing and intentionally failed to act on that knowledge. Further theories allege that the bombing was perpetrated by government forces to frame and stigmatize the militia movement, which had grown following the controversial federal handlings of the Ruby Ridge and Waco incidents, and regain public support. Government investigations have been opened at various times to look into the theories.
On 11 October 2011, United States officials alleged there was a plot tied to the Iranian government to assassinate Saudi ambassador Adel al-Jubeir in the United States. The plot was referred to as the "Iran assassination plot" or the "Iran terror plot" in the media, while the Federal Bureau of Investigation named the case "Operation Red Coalition". Iranian nationals Manssor Arbabsiar and Gholam Shakuri were charged on 11 October 2011 in federal court in New York with plotting to assassinate Al-Jubeir. According to U.S. officials, the two planned to kill Al-Jubeir at a restaurant with a bomb and subsequently bomb the Saudi embassy and the Israeli embassy in Washington, D.C. Bombings in Buenos Aires were also discussed. Arbabsiar was arrested on 29 September 2011 at John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York while Shakuri remained at large. On 24 October 2011, Arbabsiar pleaded not guilty. In May 2013, after pleading guilty, Arbabsiar was sentenced to 25-years imprisonment.
The 1936 Iraqi coup d'état, also known as the Bakr Sidqi coup, was initiated by general Bakr Sidqi in order to overthrow Prime Minister Yasin al-Hashimi of the Kingdom of Iraq. The coup succeeded in installing Sidqi's ally Hikmat Sulayman as the new Prime Minister, while Sidqi was de facto ruler of Iraq as powerful Chief of Staff. Bakr Sidqi's reign would be short; he was assassinated the next year in Mosul, and Sulayman was obliged to resign his post.
The Catilinarian conspiracy, sometimes Second Catilinarian conspiracy, was an attempted coup d'état by Lucius Sergius Catilina (Catiline) to overthrow the Roman consuls of 63 BC – Marcus Tullius Cicero and Gaius Antonius Hybrida – and forcibly assume control of the state in their stead.
A coup d'état in the capital of Montenegro, Podgorica was allegedly planned and prepared for 16 October 2016, the day of the parliamentary election, according to Montenegro's special prosecutor. In September 2017, the trial of those indicted in connection with the plot began in the High Court in Podgorica, the indictees including leaders of the Montenegrin opposition and two alleged Russian intelligence agents. Russian government officials denied any involvement. In 2019, the Higher Court found the accused guilty of plotting to commit ″terrorist acts″, also of "undermine the constitutional order of Montenegro" and first instance sentenced 13 people. In February 2021, the appellate court annulled the first instance verdict on all counts of the indictment.
The 1990 Afghan coup d'etat attempt occurred on March 6, 1990, when General Shahnawaz Tanai, a hardline communist and Khalqist who served as Minister of Defence, attempted to overthrow President Mohammad Najibullah of the Republic of Afghanistan. The coup attempt failed and Tanai was forced to flee to Pakistan.
The 2 June 1985 coup d'état attempt was a conspiracy planned by a group of military personnel to overthrow the Spanish government. The coup, which did not come to pass, would have been carried out in A Coruña during the Armed Forces Day military parade. The plan was thwarted by the CESID before any action was taken. The administration of Felipe González chose not to pursue prosecution against the organizers.
References
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- ↑ E. David, "The Conspiracy of Cinadon". Athenæeum 57 (1979), p. 239–259
- ↑ "The Catilinarian Conspiracy". ancienthistory.about.com. Archived from the original on 2014-05-16. Retrieved 2014-07-17.
- ↑ "The assassination of Julius Caesar, 44 BC". eyewitnesstohistory.com. 2004.
- ↑ "The Pisonian Conspiracy". nazoreans.com.
- ↑ "The pazzi conspiracy". palazzo-medici.it.
- ↑ "The year of Lucretia d'Este, Duchess of Ferrara". mmdtkw.org.
- ↑ Sture Arnell (1951). Karin Månsdotter. Stockholm: Wahlström & Widstrand. ISBN
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- ↑ Charles de Mornay, urn:sbl:17458, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Ingvar Andersson.), hämtad 2020-08-01.
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- ↑ "The Babington Plot". history-magazine.com.
- ↑ "Anthony Babington and the Babington Plot". luminarium.org.
- ↑ Francis Edwards, The succession, bye and main plots of 1601-1603 (2006).
- ↑ "Conspiracy". alienscientist.com.
- ↑ "The Gunpowder plot of 1605". historylearningsite.co.uk.
- ↑ Sciberras, Sandro. "Maltese History - E. The Decline of the Order of St John In the 18th Century" (PDF). St. Benedict College. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 June 2015.
- ↑ Jägerskiöld, Olof (1945). Lovisa Ulrika. Stockholm: Wahlström & Widstrand. Libris 8074766
- ↑ "Anjala Manor". spottinghistory.com.
- ↑ My Hellsing (2013). Hovpolitik. Hedvig Elisabeth Charlotte som politisk aktör vid det gustavianska hovet (Court Politics. Hedvig Elisabeth Charlotte as a political actor at the Gustavian court) Örebro: Örebro universitet. ISBN 978-91-7668-964-6 (in Swedish)
- ↑ Lilly Lindwall (1917). Magdalena Rudenschöld. Stockholm: Förlag Åhlén & Åkerlund. (in Swedish)
- ↑ Stephen F. Jones, "Russian imperial administration and the Georgian nobility: the Georgian conspiracy of 1832." Slavonic and East European Review 65.1 (1987): 53-76. Online
- ↑ "The Death of President Lincoln, 1865". eyewitnesstohistory.com.
- ↑ "The Family Plot to Kill Lincoln". Smithsonian. Retrieved 2019-04-14.
- ↑ "Emile Zola writes to Alfred Dreyfus at the height of the Dreyfus affair". shapell.org.
- ↑ Vladimir Dedijer, The road to Sarajevo (1966) pp 285-315.
- ↑ Washington Post, 13 Jan. 2021 Wealthy Bankers and Businessmen Plotted to Overthrow FDR
- ↑ The Guardian (UK) 11 Jan. 2022 "Why is so little known about the 1930s coup attempt against FDR?"
- ↑ "The Valkyrie Conspiracy". valkyrie-plot.com.
- ↑ "The 20 July bomb plot - a summary". historyinanhour.com. 20 July 2010. Archived from the original on 13 August 2015. Retrieved 22 July 2014.
- ↑ "The July bomb plot". historylearningsite.co.uk.
- ↑ Roberts, Sam (2014-09-29). "Espionage Threatened the Manhattan Project, Declassified Report Says". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 2019-04-14.
- ↑ "Spies Who Spilled Atomic Bomb Secrets". Smithsonian. Retrieved 2019-04-14.
- ↑ Hasan Zaheer, The times and trial of the Rawalpindi conspiracy 1951: the first coup attempt in Pakistan (1998)
- ↑ Mark J. Gasiorowski, "The 1953 coup d'etat in Iran." International Journal of Middle East Studies 19.3 (1987): 261-286.
- ↑ Short, Philip (2013-04-25). Pol Pot: The History of a Nightmare. John Murray Press. ISBN 978-1-4447-8030-7.
- ↑ "What was the Watergate Scandal?". uspolitics.about.com. Archived from the original on 2014-07-13. Retrieved 2014-07-22.
- ↑ "Hunger strikes and the Brighton bomb". BBC News. 18 March 1999.
- ↑ "A strange but true tale of voter fraud and bioterrorism". theatlantic.com. 10 June 2014.
- ↑ "The Iran Contra Affair 1986–1987". The Washington Post.
- ↑ "Iran contra affair". infoplease.com.
- ↑ "Chapter 1.1: 'We Have Some Planes': Inside the Four Flights" (PDF), 9/11 Commission Report, National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, 2004
- ↑ Mario Arturo Ruiz Estrada, and Evangelos Koutronas. "Terrorist attack assessment: Paris November 2015 and Brussels March *2016." Journal of Policy Modeling 38.3 (2016): 553–571. online
- ↑ Heaven, Will (2013-10-08). "Top political conspiracy theories".
- ↑ Hans Schafranek, Natalia Musienko, "The Fictitious 'Hiter-Jugend' of the Moscow NKVD" in: Barry McLoughlin, Kevin McDermott (Eds.), Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union. Palgrave MacMillan (2003), p. 208ff. ISBN 1-4039-0119-8. Retrieved November 24, 2011
- ↑ "Israel Military Intelligence: The Lavon Affair". jewishvirtuallibrary.org.