List of space stations

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The International Space Station in front of the Earth. This image was taken by Space Shuttle Discovery while pulling away during STS-119. ISS after STS-119 in March 2009 1.jpg
The International Space Station in front of the Earth. This image was taken by Space Shuttle Discovery while pulling away during STS-119.
Skylab viewed from the command module of Skylab 2 Skylab Station Viewed by Skylab 2 Command Module - GPN-2000-001709.jpg
Skylab viewed from the command module of Skylab 2
These paragraphs are an excerpt from Space station.[ edit ]

A space station (or orbital station) is a spacecraft which remains in orbit and hosts humans for extended periods of time. It therefore is an artificial satellite featuring habitation facilities. The purpose of maintaining a space station varies depending on the program. Most often space stations have been research stations, but they have also served military or commercial uses, such as hosting space tourists.

Contents

Space stations have been hosting the only continuous presence of humans in space. The first space station was Salyut 1 (1971), hosting the first crew, of the ill-fated Soyuz 11. Consecutively space stations have been operated since Skylab (1973) and occupied since 1987 with the Salyut successor Mir. Uninterrupted occupation has been sustained since the operational transition from the Mir to the International Space Station (ISS), with its first occupation in 2000.

Currently there are two fully operational space stations – the International Space Station (ISS) and China's Tiangong Space Station (TSS), which have been occupied since October 2000 with Expedition 1 and since June 2022 with Shenzhou 14. The highest number of people at the same time on one space station has been 13, first achieved with the eleven day docking to the ISS of the 127th Space Shuttle mission in 2009. The record for most people on all space stations at the same time has been 17, first on May 30, 2023, with 11 people on the ISS and 6 on the TSS. [1]

Space stations are most often modular, featuring docking ports, through which they are built and maintained, allowing the joining or movement of modules and the docking of other spacecrafts for the exchange of people, supplies and tools. While space stations generally do not leave their orbit, they do feature thrusters for station keeping.

Past stations

These stations have re-entered the atmosphere and disintegrated.

The Soviet Union ran two programs simultaneously in the 1970s, both of which were called Salyut publicly. The Long Duration Orbital Station (DOS) program was intended for scientific research into spaceflight. The Almaz program was a secret military program that tested space reconnaissance. [2]

 ‡   = Never crewed

NameProgram
Entity		Crew
size		LaunchedReenteredDays
in orbit		Days
occu-
pied		Total crew
and visitors		Number of
crewed visits		Number of
robotic visits		Mass
(* = at launch)		Pressurized
volume
Salyut 1 DOS [3] 3 [4] 19 April 1971 [5] 11 October 1971 [6] 17524 [7] 6 [8] 2 [8] 0 [8] 18,425 kg (40,620 lb) [5] 100 m3 (3,500 cu ft) [9]
Flag of the Soviet Union.svg MOM [5]
DOS-2 ‡DOS [10] — [lower-alpha 1] 29 July 1972 [5] [11] 29 July 1972failed to reach orbit————18,000 kg (40,000 lb) [12] —
Flag of the Soviet Union.svg RVSN [13]
Salyut 2 ‡Almaz [11] — [lower-alpha 1] 3 April 1973 [11] 16 April 1973 [11] 13 [11] ————18,500 kg (40,800 lb) [14] —
Flag of the Soviet Union.svg MOM [15]
Kosmos 557 ‡DOS [16] — [lower-alpha 1] 11 May 1973 [17] 22 May 1973 [18] 11————19,400 kg (42,800 lb) [12] —
Flag of the Soviet Union.svg USSR
Skylab Skylab [19] 3 [20] 14 May 1973 [21] 11 July 1979 [22] 2249171 [23] 9 [24] 3 [25] 0 [26] 77,088 kg (169,950 lb) [27] 360 m3 (12,700 cu ft) [28]
Flag of the United States.svg NASA
Salyut 3 Almaz [3] 2 [29] 25 June 1974 [30] 24 January 1975 [31] 21315 [32] 2 [32] 1 [32] 018,900 kg (41,700 lb)* [33] 90 m3 (3,200 cu ft) [16]
Flag of the Soviet Union.svg MOM [15]
Salyut 4 DOS [34] 2 [35] 26 December 1974 [36] 3 February 1977 [36] 770 [36] 92 [37] 4 [37] 2 [37] [38] 1 [37] 18,900 kg (41,700 lb) [16] *90 m3 (3,200 cu ft) [16]
Flag of the Soviet Union.svg MOM [13]
Salyut 5 Almaz [34] 2 [39] 22 June 1976 [40] 8 August 1977 [41] 41267 [42] 4 [42] 3 [42] 0 [42] 19,000 kg (42,000 lb) [16] *100 m3 (3,500 cu ft) [16]
Flag of the Soviet Union.svg MOM [15]
Salyut 6 DOS [34] [43] 2 [44] 29 September 1977 [44] 29 July 1982 [45] 1764683 [46] 33 [46] 16 [46] 14 [46] 19,000 kg (42,000 lb) [47] 90 m3 (3,200 cu ft) [48]
Flag of the Soviet Union.svg MOM [15]
Salyut 7 DOS [34] [43] 3 [49] 19 April 1982 [50] 7 February 1991 [50] 3216 [50] 861 [49] 22 [49] 10 [49] 15 [49] 19,000 kg (42,000 lb) [51] 90 m3 (3,200 cu ft) [16]
Flag of the Soviet Union.svg MOM [15]
Mir DOS [34] [43] 3 [52] 19 February 1986 [53] [lower-alpha 2] 23 March 2001 [22] [53] 5511 [53] 4594 [54] 125 [54] 39 [55] 68 [54] 129,700 kg (285,900 lb) [56] 350 m3 (12,400 cu ft) [57]
Tiangong-1 Tiangong 3 [58] 29 September 2011 [59] [60] 2 April 2018 [61] 2377226 [62] [63] 2 [62] 1 [64] 8,506 kg (18,753 lb) [65] 15 m3 (530 cu ft) [66]
Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg CMSA
Tiangong-2 Tiangong 215 September 201619 July 20191037292118,506 kg (18,753 lb) [65] 15 m3 (530 cu ft) [66]
Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg CMSA

Prototypes

These stations are prototypes; they only exist as testing platforms and were never intended to be crewed. OPS 0855 was part of a cancelled Manned Orbiting Laboratory project by the United States, while the Genesis stations were launched privately. The Genesis stations were "retired" when their avionics systems stopped working after two and a half years, yet they still remain in orbit as derelict spacecraft.

NameEntityProgramLaunchedReenteredDays in orbitMassPressurized volume
OPS 0855 Flag of the United States.svg USAF MOL 3 November 1966 [67] 9 January 1967 [67] 679,680 kg (21,340 lb)11.3 m3 (400 cu ft)
Genesis I Flag of the United States.svg Bigelow Aerospace 12 July 2006 [68] (In Orbit)66171,360 kg (3,000 lb) [69] 11.5 m3 (410 cu ft) [70]
Genesis II 28 June 2007 [68] 626611.5 m3 (406 cu ft) [70]

Operational stations

As of 2024, two stations are orbiting Earth with life support system in place and fully operational.

NameEntityCrew sizeLaunchedDays in orbit [lower-alpha 3] Days
occupied		Total crew
and visitors		Crewed
visits		Robotic
visits		MassPressurized
volume		Habitable
volume
International Space Station 7 [71] 20 November 1998 [71] [lower-alpha 2] 94088697 [72] 230 [73] 88 [74] 94 [74] 450,000 kg (990,000 lb) [75] 1,005 m3 (35,500 cu ft) [76] 388 m3 (13,700 cu ft)
Tiangong space station 3–6 [77] 29 April 2021121210821978100,000 kg (220,000 lb)340 m3 (12,000 cu ft)122 m3 (4,310 cu ft)

Planned and proposed

These space stations have been announced by their host entity and are currently in planning, development or production. The launch date listed here may change as more information becomes available.

NameEntityProgramCrew sizeLaunch datePlanned Pressurized VolumeRemarks
Lunar Gateway Flag of the United States.svg NASA
ESA logo simple.svg ESA
Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg CSA
Flag of Japan.svg JAXA 		Artemis
4
2025 [78] ≥125 m3 (4,400 cu ft)Intended to serve as a science platform and as a staging area for the lunar landings of NASA's Artemis program and follow-on human mission to Mars.
Axiom Station Flag of the United States.svg Axiom Space
International Space Station programme
TBD
Late 2026 [79] ~666.8 m3

(~23,548 cu ft)

Eventually will detach from the ISS in the early 2030s and form a private, free flying space station for commercial tourism and science activities.
Russian Orbital Service Station
Flag of Russia.svg Roscosmos Russia's next generation space station.
TBD
2027 [80] With Russia leaving the ISS programme sometime after 2024, Roscosmos announced this new space station in April 2021 as the replacement for that program.
Starlab Flag of the United States.svg NanoRacks
Flag of the United States.svg Voyager Space
Flag of Europe.svg Airbus
Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg MDA Space
Flag of Japan.svg Mitsubishi Corporation 		Private
4
2028 [81] ~450 m3

(~15892 cu ft)

"Commercial platform supporting a business designed to enable science, research, and manufacturing for customers around the world."

While originally Lockheed Martin was included in the project, as of 2024, it appears their primary role has been filled by Airbus, to provide the main habitat for the station. [82] As of 2024, they are no longer listed as a partner on Starlab's website. [83]

StarMax Flag of the United States.svg Gravitics Private
TBD
2026 [84] 400 m3

(14,126 cu ft)

"The StarMax module provides up to 400 cubic meters of usable habitable volume - nearly half the volume of the International Space Station in one module."
Orbital Reef Flag of the United States.svg Blue Origin
Flag of the United States.svg Sierra Space 		Private
10
second half 2020s [85] 830 m3

(29,000 cu ft)

"Commercial station in LEO for research, industrial, international, and commercial customers."
Bharatiya Antariksha Station [86] Flag of India.svg ISRO Indian Human Spaceflight Programme
3
~2035 [86] [87] [88] [89] [90] ISRO chairman K. Sivan announced in 2019 that India will not join the International Space Station, but will instead build a space station of its own. [91] of 52 Tonne Mass [92] It is intended to be built 5–7 years after the conclusion of the Gaganyaan program. [93]
Lunar Orbital Station [94]
Flag of Russia.svg Roscosmos
TBD
after 2030 [95]
Haven-1 Flag of the United States.svg Vast Private
4
2025 [96] "Scheduled to be the world's first commercial space station, Haven-1 and subsequent human spaceflight missions will accelerate access to space exploration" [97]
LIFE Pathfinder Flag of the United States.svg Sierra Space Private
TBD
2026"Before offering LIFE for Orbital Reef, though, the company is proposing to launch a standalone “pathfinder” version of LIFE as soon as the end of 2026". [98]
Japanese Space Station Module (Mitsui) Flag of Japan.svg JAXA|Mitsui & Co. TBA
TBD
TBDJapan's spaceflight agency, JAXA, announced in July 2024 that has contracted Mitsui & Co. to develop a concept for a new space station module for eventual flight and docking to an American private space station as yet to be determined as of the initial announcement. [99] [100] [101]

Cancelled projects

The interior of Skylab B, on display at the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum Skylab mockup Smithsonian NASM.jpg
The interior of Skylab B, on display at the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum

Most of these stations were canceled due to financial difficulties, or merged into other projects.

NameEntityCrewCancellationRemarks
Manned Orbiting Laboratory 1–7 Flag of the United States.svg USAF 2 [102] 1969 Boilerplate mission launched successfully, wider project cancelled due to excessive costs [103]
Skylab B Flag of the United States.svg NASA3 [104] 1976Constructed, but launch cancelled due to lack of funding. [105] Now a museum piece.
OPS-4 Flag of the Soviet Union.svg USSR3 [106] 1979Constructed, but Almaz program cancelled in favour of uncrewed recon satellites.
Freedom Flag of the United States.svg NASA14–16 [107] 1993Merged to form the basis of the International Space Station.
Mir-2 Flag of the Soviet Union.svg USSR
Flag of Russia.svg Roscosmos 		2 [108]
Columbus MTFF ESA logo simple.svg ESA 3
Galaxy Flag of the United States.svg Bigelow Aerospace Robotic [109] 2007Canceled due to rising costs and ability to ground test key Galaxy subsystems [110]
Sundancer 32011Was under construction, but cancelled in favour of developing B330.
Almaz commercial Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Excalibur Almaz 4+2016Soviet hardware was acquired, but never launched due to lack of funds.
Tiangong-3 Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg CNSA 32017The goals for Tiangong-2 and 3 were merged, and were completed by a single station rather than two separate stations.
OPSEK Flag of Russia.svg Roscosmos 2+2017Some modules such as Nauka were launched and attached to the ISS- but proposals to split these off as a separate station were cancelled, and they instead remain part of the ISS.
B330 Flag of the United States.svg Bigelow Aerospace 32020Test articles were constructed but not flight ready hardware; cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Northrop Grumman CLD Northrop Grumman 4-8 [111] 2023Developed under the Commercial LEO Destinations program, cancelled by Northrop Grumman to partner with Nanoracks on Starlab.

Timeline

Tiangong space stationTiangong 2Tiangong 1Genesis II (space habitat)Genesis IInternational Space StationMirSalyut 7Salyut 6Salyut 5Salyut 4Salyut 3SkylabKosmos 557Salyut 2DOS-2Salyut 1OPS 0855List of space stations
The image above contains clickable links Interactive icon.svg
The image above contains clickable links
Timeline of space stations, sorted by the nations that launched them. Prototype stations are marked*.
  China
  Soviet Union/Russia
  USA
  multiple nations

Size comparison

The image above contains clickable links Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes. Space station size comparison.svg
The image above contains clickable links Interactive icon.svg
The image above contains clickable links
Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes.

See also

Notes

  1. 1 2 3 The USSR intended to crew these stations with 2 men, however they re-entered the atmosphere before the cosmonauts were launched.
  2. 1 2 Launch date of the initial module. Additional modules for this station were launched later.
  3. ↑ Correct as of 23 August2024

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Extravehicular activity</span> Activity done by an astronaut or cosmonaut outside a spacecraft

Extravehicular activity (EVA) is any activity done by an astronaut in outer space outside a spacecraft. In the absence of a breathable Earthlike atmosphere, the astronaut is completely reliant on a space suit for environmental support. EVA includes spacewalks and lunar or planetary surface exploration. In a stand-up EVA (SEVA), an astronaut stands through an open hatch but does not fully leave the spacecraft. EVAs have been conducted by the Soviet Union/Russia, the United States, Canada, the European Space Agency and China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International Space Station</span> Inhabited space station in low Earth orbit (1998–present)

The International Space Station (ISS) is a large space station assembled and maintained in low Earth orbit by a collaboration of five space agencies and their contractors: NASA, Roscosmos (Russia), ESA (Europe), JAXA (Japan), and CSA (Canada). The ISS is the largest space station ever built. Its primary purpose is to perform microgravity and space environment experiments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Space station</span> Habitat and station in outer space

A space station is a spacecraft which remains in orbit and hosts humans for extended periods of time. It therefore is an artificial satellite featuring habitation facilities. The purpose of maintaining a space station varies depending on the program. Most often space stations have been research stations, but they have also served military or commercial uses, such as hosting space tourists.

<i>Mir</i> Soviet/Russian space station (1986–2001)

Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by the Russian Federation. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed. The station served as a microgravity research laboratory in which crews conducted experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology, and spacecraft systems with a goal of developing technologies required for permanent occupation of space.

<i>Salyut</i> programme Soviet space station programme

The Salyut programme was the first space station programme, undertaken by the Soviet Union. It involved a series of four crewed scientific research space stations and two crewed military reconnaissance space stations over a period of 15 years, from 1971 to 1986. Two other Salyut launches failed. In one respect, Salyut had the task of carrying out long-term research into the problems of living in space and a variety of astronomical, biological and Earth-resources experiments, and on the other hand the USSR used this civilian programme as a cover for the highly secretive military Almaz stations, which flew under the Salyut designation. Salyut 1, the first station in the programme, became the world's first crewed space station.

Human spaceflight programs have been conducted, started, or planned by multiple countries and companies. Until the 21st century, human spaceflight programs were sponsored exclusively by governments, through either the military or civilian space agencies. With the launch of the privately funded SpaceShipOne in 2004, a new category of human spaceflight programs – commercial human spaceflight – arrived. By the end of 2022, three countries and one private company (SpaceX) had successfully launched humans to Earth orbit, and two private companies had launched humans on a suborbital trajectory.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Almaz</span> Soviet military space station program

The Almaz program was a highly secret Soviet military space station program, begun in the early 1960s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">TKS (spacecraft)</span> Soviet spacecraft conceived in the late 1960s

The TKS spacecraft was a Soviet spacecraft conceived in the late 1960s for resupply flights to the military Almaz space station.

Shuttle–<i>Mir</i> program 1993–1998 collaborative Russia–US space program

The Shuttle–Mir program was a collaborative 11-mission space program between Russia and the United States that involved American Space Shuttles visiting the Russian space station Mir, Russian cosmonauts flying on the Shuttle, and an American astronaut flying aboard a Soyuz spacecraft to engage in long-duration expeditions aboard Mir.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Space rendezvous</span> Series of orbital maneuvers to bring two spacecraft into the vicinity of each other

A space rendezvous is a set of orbital maneuvers during which two spacecraft, one of which is often a space station, arrive at the same orbit and approach to a very close distance. Rendezvous requires a precise match of the orbital velocities and position vectors of the two spacecraft, allowing them to remain at a constant distance through orbital station-keeping. Rendezvous may or may not be followed by docking or berthing, procedures which bring the spacecraft into physical contact and create a link between them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mir Core Module</span> First module of the Soviet/Russian Mir space station

Mir, DOS-7, was the first module of the Soviet/Russian Mir space station complex, in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001. Generally referred to as either the core module or base block, the module was launched on 20 February 1986 on a Proton-K rocket from LC-200/39 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome. The spacecraft was generally similar in design to the two previous Soviet orbital stations, Salyut 6 and Salyut 7, however possessed a revolutionary addition in the form of a multiple docking node at the forward end of the module. This, in addition to the docking port at the rear of the spacecraft, allowed five additional modules to be docked directly to DOS-7, greatly expanding the station's capabilities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International Space Station programme</span> Ongoing space research program

The International Space Station programme is tied together by a complex set of legal, political and financial agreements between the fifteen nations involved in the project, governing ownership of the various components, rights to crewing and utilisation, and responsibilities for crew rotation and resupply of the International Space Station. It was conceived in September 1993 by the United States and Russia after 1980s plans for separate American (Freedom) and Soviet (Mir-2) space stations failed due to budgetary reasons. These agreements tie together the five space agencies and their respective International Space Station programmes and govern how they interact with each other on a daily basis to maintain station operations, from traffic control of spacecraft to and from the station, to utilisation of space and crew time. In March 2010, the International Space Station Program Managers from each of the five partner agencies were presented with Aviation Week's Laureate Award in the Space category, and the ISS programme was awarded the 2009 Collier Trophy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Russian Orbital Segment</span> Russian components of the International Space Station

The Russian Orbital Segment (ROS) is the name given to the components of the International Space Station (ISS) constructed in Russia and operated by the Russian Roscosmos. The ROS handles Guidance, Navigation, and Control for the entire Station.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex</span> Proposed Russian space station

The Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex was a 2009–2017 proposed third-generation Russian modular space station for low Earth orbit. The concept was to use OPSEK to assemble components of crewed interplanetary spacecraft destined for the Moon, Mars, and possibly Saturn. The returning crew could also recover on the station before landing on Earth. Thus, OPSEK could form part of a future network of stations supporting crewed exploration of the Solar System.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Docking and berthing of spacecraft</span> Joining of two or more space vehicles

Docking and berthing of spacecraft is the joining of two space vehicles. This connection can be temporary, or partially permanent such as for space station modules.

<i>Tianhe</i> core module Module of the Tiangong space station

Tianhe, officially the Tianhe core module, is the first module to launch of the Tiangong space station. It was launched into orbit on 29 April 2021, as the first launch of the final phase of Tiangong program, part of the China Manned Space Program.

The S5.80 is a liquid pressure-fed rocket engine burning N2O4/UDMH with an O/F of 1.85. It is used for crew-rated spacecraft propulsion applications. It is currently used in the Soyuz-TMA-M spacecraft propulsion module KTDU-80, and its sibling, the S5.79 rocket engine, is still used as the main propulsion of the Zvezda ISS module. The S5.80 generates 2.95 kN (660 lbf) of thrust with a chamber pressure of 0.88 MPa (128 psi) and a nozzle expansion of 153.8 that enables it to achieve a specific impulse of 302 s (2.96 km/s). It is rated for 30 starts with a total firing time of 890 seconds. The engine, without the pressurization system or propellant tanks, weighs 310 kg (680 lb) and is an integrated unit that is 1.2 m (47 in) long with a diameter of 2.1 m (83 in).

References

  1. ↑ Clark, Stephen. "Chinese astronaut launch breaks record for most people in orbit – Spaceflight Now" . Retrieved 1 June 2023.
  2. ↑ "The Station: Russian Space History". PBS. 1999. Archived from the original on 14 December 2023. Retrieved 8 May 2012.
  3. 1 2 Harland, David Michael (2005). The Story Of Space Station Mir. Praxis Publishing. p. 351. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-73977-9. ISBN   978-0-387-73977-9. LCCN   2004058915. OCLC   56531303. OL   7444467M.
  4. ↑ "Space Stations". ThinkQuest. Archived from the original on 24 February 2014. Retrieved 14 February 2012.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Wade, Mark (ed.). "Salyut 1". Encyclopedia Astronautica . Archived from the original on 28 April 2024. Retrieved 1 January 2012.
  6. ↑ Long, Tony (19 April 2011). "April 19, 1971: Soviets Put First Space Station Into Orbit". WIRED . Archived from the original on 28 April 2023.
  7. ↑ "Space Station". World Almanac Education Group Inc. Archived from the original on 26 September 2011. Retrieved 14 February 2012.
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  9. ↑ Gibbons, John H. (2008). Salyut: Soviet steps toward permanent human presence in space. DIANE Publishing. p. 15. ISBN   978-1-4289-2401-7.
  10. ↑ Grujica S. Ivanovich (2008). Salyut - The First Space Station: Triumph and Tragedy. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 329. Bibcode:2008saly.book.....I. ISBN   978-0-387-73973-1.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 Zimmerman, Robert (2003). Leaving Earth. Washington, DC, United States: Joseph Henry Press. p.  84. ISBN   978-0-309-08548-9.
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  13. 1 2 "Salyut". Archived from the original on August 20, 2016. Retrieved 2021-07-17.
  14. ↑ "Saylut 2". NASA. Retrieved 30 November 2010.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 "Almaz". Archived from the original on August 20, 2016. Retrieved 2021-07-17.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 D.S.F. Portree (1995). "Mir Hardware Heritage" (PDF). NASA Sti/Recon Technical Report N. 95: 23249. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 30 November 2010. (Full text available on Wikisource)
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  18. ↑ "Large Uncontrolled Reentries". planet4589.org. Archived from the original on 24 July 2015. Retrieved 3 February 2012.
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  22. 1 2 Stewart Taggart (22 March 2001). "The Day the Sky(lab) Fell". Wired. Retrieved 1 January 2012.
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  24. ↑ "Skylab 30 Years Later". Space Daily. 11 November 2003.
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  27. ↑ "BBC – Solar System – Skylab (pictures, video, facts & news)". BBC. Retrieved 31 January 2012.
  28. ↑ Zimmerman, Robert (2003). Leaving Earth. Washington, DC, United States: Joseph Henry Press. p.  51. ISBN   978-0-309-08548-9.
  29. ↑ Furniss, Tim (2003). A History of Space Exploration: And Its Future... Lyons Press. p. 200. ISBN   978-1-58574-650-7.
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  31. ↑ "Largest Objects to Reenter". Aerospace Corporation. Archived from the original on 1 February 2012. Retrieved 1 February 2012.
  32. 1 2 3 "Resident Crews of Salyut 3". spacefacts.de. Retrieved 5 May 2012.
  33. ↑ "Skylab". University of Oregon. Retrieved 31 January 2012. (Lecture at the University of Oregon, Salyut 3 is mentioned later in the lecture)
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  37. 1 2 3 4 "The DOS Space Stations: Salyut 4". Zarya.info. Retrieved 5 May 2012.
  38. ↑ "Spaceflight :Soviet Space Stations". Centennial of Flight. Retrieved 9 January 2012.
  39. ↑ "Soyuz 21". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on August 27, 2002. Retrieved 5 May 2012.
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  41. ↑ "Sixth Salyut Space Station Launched". Science News. 112 (15): 229. 1977. doi:10.2307/3962473. JSTOR   3962472. (requires JSTOR access)
  42. 1 2 3 4 "Salyut 5". Aerospaceguide. Archived from the original on 26 May 2012. Retrieved 5 May 2012.
  43. 1 2 3 Grujica S. Ivanovich (2008). Salyut - The First Space Station: Triumph and Tragedy. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 358. Bibcode:2008saly.book.....I. ISBN   978-0-387-73973-1.
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