Ministry of Information (United Kingdom)

Last updated

Senate House, the Ministry of Information headquarters in London during World War II Senate House UoL.jpg
Senate House, the Ministry of Information headquarters in London during World War II

The Ministry of Information (MOI), headed by the Minister of Information, was a United Kingdom government department created briefly at the end of the First World War and again during the Second World War. [1] Located in Senate House at the University of London during the 1940s, it was the central government department responsible for publicity and propaganda. The MOI was dissolved in March 1946, with its residual functions passing to the Central Office of Information (COI); [2] which was itself dissolved in December 2011 due to the reforming of the organisation of government communications. [3]

Contents

First World War

Before the Lloyd George War Cabinet was formed in 1917, there was no full centralised coordination of public information and censorship. Even under the War Cabinet, there were still many overlapping departments involved. The Admiralty, War Office and Press Committee (AWOPC) had been formed in 1912 as a purely advisory body, chaired initially by the Secretary of the Admiralty Sir Graham Greene, the press having agreed to self-censor accordingly in matters of defence and secret intelligence. [4] When war was declared, other newly formed departments overlapped with it and with each other.

These included the British Board of Film Censors for films, the Propaganda Bureau for overseas information and propaganda (to counter the existing German equivalent), the National War Aims Committee for internal information and propaganda, the Neutral Press Committee dealing with neutral countries, and the Press Bureau (absorbing but not totally replacing many of the AWOPC functions and practices, albeit with much wider focus).

The Propaganda Bureau, situated in Wellington House and chaired by Charles Masterman, opened in 1914 and recruited 25 well-known authors for its work, including John Buchan, but in 1917 it was re-formed into the Department of Information under Buchan, with Masterman retaining responsibility for books, pamphlets, photographs and war paintings. Later that year that department was renamed as a ministry and placed initially under the then Minister without Portfolio, Sir Edward Carson, and subsequently in early 1918 under a senior press figure, Lord Beaverbrook. This was widely perceived and criticised, in politics and the press, as an excessive attempt by Lloyd George to control the press, as was political use of the Defence of the Realm Act 1914.

Wrangling between different interests continued for the remainder of the war and even afterwards, the Press Bureau becoming the main focus of discontent and negotiation between owners/editors and ministers. The Press Bureau did eventually in 1918 formulate guidelines for handling information in wartime, which were later used in 1938 in creating the Second World War Ministry of Information. Some forms of wartime censorship continued until 1920, by when the AWOPC became again the main interface for political/press publication of defence and secret intelligence matters.[ citation needed ]

Ministers of Information 1918–1919

Colour key (for political parties):
   Conservative    Liberal

NamePortraitTerm of officePolitical partyPrime minister
The Lord Beaverbrook Max Aitken, Lord Beaverbrook.jpg 10 February 19184 November 1918 Conservative David Lloyd George
(Coalition)
The Lord Downham William Hayes Fisher, 1st Baron Downham.jpg 4 November 191810 January 1919 Conservative

Second World War

Keep Calm and Carry On, a poster produced by the MOI in 1939 which, although printed and distributed, was never posted. Keep-calm-and-carry-on-scan.jpg
Keep Calm and Carry On , a poster produced by the MOI in 1939 which, although printed and distributed, was never posted.

The Ministry of Information (MOI) was formed on 4 September 1939, the day after Britain's declaration of war, and the first minister was sworn into Office on 5 September 1939.

The ministry's function was "To promote the national case to the public at home and abroad in time of war" by issuing "National Propaganda" and controlling news and information. [5] It was initially responsible for censorship, issuing official news, home publicity and overseas publicity in Allied and neutral countries. These functions were matched by a responsibility for monitoring public opinion through a network of regional information offices. Responsibility for publicity in enemy territories was organised by Department EH (later part of the Special Operations Executive).

Pre-War planning, 1935–38

Secret planning for a Ministry of Information (MOI) had started in October 1935 under the auspices of the Committee of Imperial Defence (CID). [6] Draft proposals were accepted on 27 July 1936 and Sir Stephen Tallents was appointed as Director General Designate. [7] Tallents drew together a small group of planners from existing government departments, public bodies and specialist outside organisations. [8]

The MOI's planners sought to combine experience gained during the First World War with new communications technology. Their work reflected an increasing concern that a future war would exert huge strain on the civilian population and a belief that government propaganda would be needed to maintain morale. However it was hindered by competing visions for the ministry, a requirement for secrecy which disrupted the making of key appointments, and the reluctance of many government departments to give up their public relations divisions to central control. [9]

The Ministry of Information and the German occupation of Czechoslovakia, 1938–39

The shadow Ministry of Information came into being briefly between 26 September and 3 October 1938 after the Nazi annexation of the Sudetenland (German occupation of Czechoslovakia) heightened international tensions. The 71 officials who were assembled in temporary accommodation had responsibility for censoring press reports surrounding the Munich Agreement. [10] [11]

The week-long experiment was not regarded as a success. Instead it highlighted the extent to which questions over appointments, accommodation, links to the media and the relationship with other government departments had been left unresolved. [12] The confusion had been made worse by tensions between the shadow MOI and the Foreign Office News Department. This tension spilled over into the Committee for Imperial Defence which considered proposals to abandon plans for the Ministry of Information. [13]

Tallents left his post as Director General Designate on 2 January 1939 (with responsibility for the MOI assumed by the Home Office). Planning efforts would increase again after Nazi troops moved into Prague on 15 March 1939 (German occupation of Czechoslovakia). The British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain publicly announced his government's intentions for the MOI in a parliamentary speech on 15 June 1939. [14] Home Office officials were privately given until 31 December 1939 to complete their plans. [15]

The Phoney War, 1939–40

The Ministry of Information (MOI) was formed on 4 September 1939, the day after Britain's declaration of war, and Lord Macmillan was sworn in as its first minister on 5 September 1939. The MOI's headquarters were housed within the University of London's Senate House and would remain there for the rest of the war.

The MOI was initially organised in four groups. A "Press Relations" group was responsible for both the issue of news and censorship. A "Publicity Users" group (split into "foreign" and "home" sections) was responsible for propaganda policy. A "Publicity Producers" group (split according to media) was responsible for design and production. These were overseen by a "Co-ordination and Intelligence" group responsible for administration. [16] This structure had only been finalised in May–June 1940 and senior officials were often unsure about their responsibilities. [17]

The press reacted negatively to the MOI. Initial confusion between the MOI and service departments led to accusations that the MOI was delaying access to the news, and a newspaper campaign against censorship was started. [18] Other commentators pointed to the ministry's large staff and satirised it as ineffective and out of touch. [19] The MOI's first publicity campaign also misfired with a poster bearing the message "Your Courage, Your Cheerfulness, Your Resolution, Will Bring Us Victory" criticised for appearing class-bound. [20] These factors led to political scrutiny and resulted in the removal of the Press Relations Group on 9 October 1939 (which became an autonomous Press and Censorship Bureau) and an announcement on 25 October 1939 that the MOI's staff was to be cut by a third. [21]

Lord Macmillan was replaced as minister by Sir John Reith on 5 January 1940. Reith sought to improve the MOI's governance, expanded its network of regional information offices and introduced a Home Intelligence division. He also sought to secure the reintegration of the Press and Censorship Division in the belief that the decision to separate this function had been "obviously and monstrously ridiculous and wrong". [22] These changes were announced by Neville Chamberlain on 24 April 1940 but were not fully operational until June 1940.

The Battle of Britain, 1940

Chamberlain's resignation and replacement by Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940 resulted in Reith being sacked and the appointment of Duff Cooper. Cooper was closely allied to Churchill and had openly criticised the previous government's approach. [23] [24]

Nazi advances in Western Europe encouraged the Ministry of Information (MOI) to increasingly focus on domestic propaganda after May 1940. A Home Publicity Emergency Committee was set up to issue public instructions about air raids, parachute raids and what to do in the event of an invasion. Concurrent campaigns extolled the public to "Avoid Rumour" and join a "Silent Column" so that they would avoid passing information to spies. However, as the situation stabilised, these campaigns were increasingly criticised for treating the public with contempt. [25]

The MOI was subject to further criticism in July 1940 when it was accused of using "Gestapo" tactics to spy on the British public. Popular newspapers seized on reports about MOI-sponsored opinion polling and denounced the department's staff as "Cooper's Snoopers". Home Intelligence reports recorded complaints from those who felt that the British state was "becoming dangerously akin to the one we are fighting". [26] The cost of such activities was also queried in Parliament. [27]

Cooper was forced to confront further questions regarding the news and was dogged by accusations that he wanted to enforce a system of compulsory censorship. His failed attempt to increase the MOI's control over public relations divisions in other departments also drew him into conflict with Churchill. After two months of internal wrangling, it was reported that Cooper was to be replaced as Minister by Brendan Bracken on 17 July 1941. [28]

Later stages of the War, 1941–45

The Ministry of Information (MOI) settled down during Bracken's tenure. Supported by Churchill and the press, Bracken remained in office until after Victory in Europe Day.

One of Bracken's main achievements was to promote a closer working relationship with other government departments. Plans to increase control over public relations divisions in other departments were duly dropped and closer co-operation sought in their place. [29] Bracken's experience as a newspaper proprietor encouraged a similar approach with regard to the press and he maintained that the MOI should not impinge upon the right to free speech. [30]

Bracken was keen to promote a more limited role in the field of domestic propaganda. He insisted that the MOI should stop "lecturing" the public and publicly questioned its ability to "stimulate British Morale". [29] The MOI was instead encouraged to provide background information to particular events whilst providing technical support to other departments. Bracken also insisted that the MOI should be dissolved at the end of the war with Germany and that its activities made it inappropriate to peacetime conditions. [31]

Post War, 1945–46

The MOI was dissolved in March 1946, with its residual functions passing to the Central Office of Information (COI), a central organisation providing common and specialist information services.

Campaigns

Campaigns carried out included themes such as the following:

Working practices

For home publicity, the ministry dealt with the planning of general government or interdepartmental information, and provided common services for public relations activities of other government departments. The Home Publicity division undertook three main types of campaigns: those requested by other government departments, specific regional campaigns, and those it initiated itself. Before undertaking a campaign, the MOI would ensure that propaganda was not being used as a substitute for other activities, including legislation.

The General Production Division (GPD), one of the few divisions to remain in place throughout the war, undertook technical work under Edwin Embleton. The GPD often produced work in as little as a week or a fortnight, when normal commercial practice was three months. Artists were not in a reserved occupation and were liable for call up for military service along with everyone else. Many were recalled from the services to work for the ministry in 1942, a year in which £4 million was spent on publicity, approximately a third more than in 1941. £120,000 of this was spent on posters, art and exhibitions. Of the many officially employed war artists, several, including Eric Kennington, [37] Paul Nash and William Rothenstein, were war artists during both World Wars. Many extra designs were prepared to cope with short lead-times and the changing events of war. Through the Home intelligence Division, the MOI collected reactions to general wartime morale and, in some cases, specifically to publicity produced.

Dylan Thomas, frustrated at being declared unfit to join the armed forces, contacted Sir Kenneth Clark, director of the films division of the Ministry of Information, and offered his services. Although not directly employed by the MOI, he scripted at least five films in 1942 with titles such as This Is Colour (about dye); New Towns for Old; These Are the Men; Our Country (a sentimental tour of Britain), and The Art of Conversation. [38]

Ministers of Information 1939–46

Colour key (for political parties):
   Conservative    National Independent    Labour

NameTerm of officePolitical partyPrime minister
The Lord Macmillan 4 September 19395 January 1940 Conservative Neville Chamberlain
(War Coalition)
Sir John Reith 5 January 194012 May 1940 National Independent
Duff Cooper 12 May 194020 July 1941 Conservative Winston Churchill
(War Coalition)
Brendan Bracken 20 July 194125 May 1945 Conservative
Geoffrey Lloyd 25 May 194526 July 1945 Conservative Winston Churchill
(Caretaker Min.)
Edward Williams 4 August 194531 March 1946 Labour Clement Attlee

Current research

A major four-year Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC) funded research project on the "Communications History of the Ministry of Information" began in January 2014. The project is led by Professor Simon Eliot of the School of Advanced Study at the University of London and Paul Vetch of the Department of Digital Humanities at King's College London. [39] A project website called MOI Digital [40] was launched on 24 June 2014.

Henry Irving and Judith Townend have drawn parallels between information censorship in Britain during World War II and contemporary restrictions in reporting trials that relate to terrorism offences, such as the case of R v Incedal and Rarmoul-Bouhadjar (2014). [41]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">John Reith, 1st Baron Reith</span> British broadcasting executive and politician (1889–1971)

John Charles Walsham Reith, 1st Baron Reith,, was a Scottish broadcasting executive who established the tradition of independent public service broadcasting in the United Kingdom. In 1922, he was employed by the BBC, then the British Broadcasting Company Ltd., as its general manager; in 1923 he became its managing director, and in 1927 he was employed as the Director-General of the British Broadcasting Corporation created under a royal charter. His concept of broadcasting as a way of educating the masses marked for a long time the BBC and similar organisations around the world. An engineer by profession, and standing at 6 feet 6 inches (1.98 m) tall, he was a larger-than-life figure who was a pioneer in his field.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Political Warfare Executive</span> British clandestine organization

During World War II, the Political Warfare Executive (PWE) was a British clandestine body created to produce and disseminate both white and black propaganda, with the aim of damaging enemy morale and sustaining the morale of countries occupied or allied with Nazi Germany.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Philip Gibbs</span> English journalist and novelist

Sir Philip Armand Hamilton Gibbs KBE was an English journalist and prolific author of books who served as one of five official British reporters during the First World War. Four of his siblings were also writers, A. Hamilton Gibbs, Francis Hamilton Gibbs, Helen Hamilton Gibbs, and Cosmo Hamilton, as was his father Henry James Gibbs, and his own son, Anthony.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Censorship in the Empire of Japan</span> Political, pornographical and religious censoring in Japan from 17th Century

Censorship in the Empire of Japan was a continuation of a long tradition beginning in the feudal period of Japan. Government censorship of the press existed in Japan during the Edo period, as the Tokugawa bakufu was in many ways a police state, which sought to control the spread of information, including Christianity, the influx of Western ideas, pornography and any political writings critical of the shōgun and government.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Home Ministry</span> Japanese government ministry (1873–1947)

The Home Ministry was a Cabinet-level ministry established under the Meiji Constitution that managed the internal affairs of Empire of Japan from 1873 to 1947. Its duties included local administration, elections, police, monitoring people, social policy and public works. In 1938, the HM's social policy was detached from itself, then the Ministry of Health and Welfare was established. In 1947, the HM was abolished under the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers restoration, then its administrative affairs were proceeded to the National Police Agency, the Ministry of Construction, the Ministry of Home Affairs and so on. In 2001, the MOHA was integrated with the Management and Coordination Agency and the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications, then the Ministry of Public Management, Home affairs, Posts and Telecommunications was established. In 2004, the MPHPT changed its English name into the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications. In other words, the MIC is the direct descendant of the HM.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Propaganda in the Republic of China</span> Propaganda in the Republic of China for political purposes

Propaganda in the Republic of China has been an important tool since its inception with the 1911 Revolution. The term xuanchuan can have either a neutral connotation in official government contexts or a pejorative connotation in informal contexts. Some xuanchuan collocations usually refer to "propaganda", others to "publicity", and still others are ambiguous. It also was an important tool in legitimizing the Nationalist government that retreated from mainland China to Taiwan in 1949.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psychological Warfare Division</span> Military unit

The Psychological Warfare Division of Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force was a joint Anglo-American organization set-up in World War II tasked with conducting (predominantly) white tactical psychological warfare against German troops and recently liberated countries in Northwest Europe, during and after D-Day. It was headed by US Brigadier-General Robert A. McClure. The Division was formed from staff of the US Office of War Information (OWI) and Office of Strategic Services (OSS) and the British Political Warfare Executive (PWE).

MI7 was a branch of the British War Office’s Directorate of Military Intelligence with responsibilities for press liaison and propaganda. The branch was originally established in the First World War and disbanded after the signing of the Armistice. The branch was re-formed at the start of the Second World War. The new MI7, while less significant than its predecessor, acted as a necessary liaison link between the War Office and the Ministry of Information and Political Warfare Executive.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Postal censorship</span> Inspection or examination of mail

Postal censorship is the inspection or examination of mail, most often by governments. It can include opening, reading and total or selective obliteration of letters and their contents, as well as covers, postcards, parcels and other postal packets. Postal censorship takes place primarily but not exclusively during wartime and periods of unrest, and occasionally at other times, such as periods of civil disorder or of a state of emergency. Both covert and overt postal censorship have occurred.

The Australian Information Service (AIS) was one of a series of federal government organisations created to promote the image of Australia, in existence between 1940 and 1996.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stephen Tallents</span> British civil servant and public relations expert

Sir Stephen George Tallents was a British civil servant and public relations expert.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda</span> Nazi government agency

The Reich Ministry for Public Enlightenment and Propaganda, also known simply as the Ministry of Propaganda, controlled the content of the press, literature, visual arts, film, theater, music and radio in Nazi Germany.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">British propaganda during World War II</span> Information and media used to influence support for the war effort

Britain re-created the World War I Ministry of Information for the duration of World War II to generate propaganda to influence the population towards support for the war effort. A wide range of media was employed aimed at local and overseas audiences. Traditional forms such as newspapers and posters were joined by new media including cinema (film), newsreels and radio. A wide range of themes were addressed, fostering hostility to the enemy, support for allies, and specific pro war projects such as conserving metal and growing vegetables.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ministry of Home Security</span> Former British government department

The Ministry of Home Security was a British government department established in 1939 to direct national civil defence, primarily tasked with organising air raid precautions, during the Second World War. The Ministry for Home Security was headed by Sir John Anderson, the Home Secretary and Minister of Home Security. The Ministry's responsibilities covered all central and regional civil defence organisations, such as air raid wardens, rescue squads, fire services, and the Women’s Voluntary Service. It was also responsible for giving approval to local ARP schemes and providing public shelters.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Beveridge Report</span> Influential 1942 document in the founding of the welfare state in the United Kingdom

The Beveridge Report, officially entitled Social Insurance and Allied Services, is a government report, published in November 1942, influential in the founding of the welfare state in the United Kingdom. It was drafted by the Liberal economist William Beveridge – with research and publicity by his wife, mathematician Janet Philip – who proposed widespread reforms to the system of social welfare to address what he identified as "five giants on the road of reconstruction": "Want… Disease, Ignorance, Squalor and Idleness". Published in the midst of World War II, the report promised rewards for everyone's sacrifices. Overwhelmingly popular with the public, it formed the basis for the post-war reforms known as the welfare state, which include the expansion of National Insurance and the creation of the National Health Service.

Home Intelligence was a division of the Ministry of Information (MOI) which was a government social research organisation responsible for monitoring civilian morale in Britain during the Second World War.

Edwin Embleton was a commercial and graphic designer who is widely recognised for his work in the Publications Division of the Ministry of Information during the Second World War.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of propaganda</span>

Propaganda is a form of communication that aims to shape people's beliefs and behaviors. It is typically not impartial. It is used to promote a specific agenda or perspective and is often biased, misleading, or even false. Propagandists use various techniques to manipulate people's opinions, including selective presentation of facts, the omission of relevant information, and the use of emotionally charged language.

Eileen Margaret Evans was a British graphic designer who co-founded the Mount/Evans design studio with graphic designer, Reginald Mount after World War II.

Samuel Hood, 6th Viscount Hood, was a Foreign Office official and diplomat for the United Kingdom.

References

  1. ↑ "The National Archives – Research and learning – Exhibitions – The Art of War – Learn about the art". The National Archives.
  2. ↑ "COI – About COI". 19 June 2010. Archived from the original on 19 June 2010. Retrieved 14 August 2021.
  3. ↑ "Government publishes response to COI review". GOV.UK. Retrieved 14 August 2021.
  4. ↑ Wilkinson, Nicholas, 1941– (2009). Secrecy and the Media: the official history of the United Kingdom's D-notice system. London: Routledge. ISBN   978-0-415-45375-2. OCLC   281090467.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  5. ↑ The National Archives (TNA), CAB 16/127 MIC 7 "Report of the MOI Planning Subcommittee", 27 July 1936.
  6. ↑ Taylor, Philip M. (1983). "If War Should Come: Preparing the Fifth Arm for Total War 1935–39". Journal of Contemporary History. 16 (1): 32–33.
  7. ↑ The National Archives, CAB 16/127 MIC 7 "Report of the MOI Planning Subcommittee", 27 July 1936.
  8. ↑ Grant, Mariel (1994). Propaganda and the Role of the State in Inter-war Britain. Oxford: Clarendon. pp. 239–41.
  9. ↑ Grant, Mariel (1999). "Towards a Central Office of Information: Continuity and Change in British Government Information Policy". Journal of Contemporary History. 34 (1): 49–67. doi:10.1177/002200949903400103. S2CID   220875029.
  10. ↑ Stenton, Michael (1980). "British Propaganda and Raision d'Etat". European Studies Review (10): 50.
  11. ↑ Taylor (1981). "If War Should Come: Preparing the Fifth Arm for Total War". Journal of Contemporary History (16): 39.
  12. ↑ TNA, CAB 16/127, MIC 16 "Report by Sir Stephen Tallents", 14 November 1938.
  13. ↑ TNA, CAB 16/127 MIC 5th, 14 December 1938.
  14. ↑ Temple Willcox, "Projection or Publicity? Rival Concepts in the Pre-War Planning of the British Ministry of Information", Journal of Contemporary History, 18 (1983), p. 97.
  15. ↑ Henry Irving, "The Ministry's Launch", MOI Digital, 23 June 2014.
  16. ↑ Irving, Henry (23 June 2014). "The Ministry at a Glance". MOI Digital.
  17. ↑ Macmillan, Hugh (1952). A Man of Law's Tale: The Reminiscences of the Rt Hon Lord Macmillan. London: Macmillan. p. 171.
  18. ↑ McLaine, Ian (1979). Ministry of Morale: Home Front Morale and the Ministry of Information in World War II. London: Allen & Unwin. p. 36.
  19. ↑ Norman Riley, 999 and All That (London: Gollancz, 1940).
  20. ↑ James Chapman, The British at War (London: I.B. Tauris, 1998), p. 18.
  21. ↑ Ian McLaine, Ministry of Morale: Home Front Morale and the Ministry of Information in World War II (London: Allen & Unwin, 1979), p. 49.
  22. ↑ Reith, John (1949). Into the Wind. London: Hodder and Stoughton. p. 354.
  23. ↑ Duff Cooper, Old Men Forget (London: Hart Davies, 1953), pp. 267 and 269
  24. ↑ Reith, John (1949). Into the Wind. London: Hodder and Stoughton. p. 377.
  25. ↑ Jo Fox, "Careless Talk: Tensions within British Domestic Propaganda during the Second World War", Journal of British Studies, 51 (2012), 936–66.
  26. ↑ TNA, INF 1/264, "Points from the Regions", 22 July 1940.
  27. ↑ Parliamentary Debates (Commons), 5th Ser. Vol. 363, 31 Jul 1940, cc. 1215–7.
  28. ↑ John Colville, The Fringes of Power (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1985), p. 415.
  29. 1 2 Michael Balfour, Propaganda in War (London: Routledge and Keegan Paul, 1979), p. 70.
  30. ↑ Michael Balfour, Propaganda in War (London: Routledge and Keegan Paul, 1979), p. 66.
  31. ↑ Mariel Grant, "Towards a Central Office of Information", Journal of Contemporary History, 34 (1999), p. 52.
  32. ↑ Archives, The National. "The National Archives – Research and learning – Exhibitions – The Art of War – Propaganda – Home Front". nationalarchives.gov.uk.
  33. ↑ Archives, The National. "The National Archives – Research and learning – Exhibitions – The Art of War – Propaganda – Production – Salvage". nationalarchives.gov.uk.
  34. ↑ Archives, The National. "The National Archives – Research and learning – Exhibitions – The Art of War – Propaganda – Allied Unity". nationalarchives.gov.uk.
  35. ↑ Archives, The National. "The National Archives – Research and learning – Exhibitions – The Art of War – Propaganda – The fighting forces". nationalarchives.gov.uk.
  36. ↑ Archives, The National. "The National Archives – Research and learning – Exhibitions – The Art of War – Propaganda – Personalities". nationalarchives.gov.uk.
  37. ↑ Tate. "Eric Kennington 1888–1960". Tate.
  38. ↑ Lycett, Andrew (21 June 2008). "The reluctant propagandist". The Guardian . Retrieved 24 December 2008.
  39. ↑ "Softly-softly thought police brought to book at last". Times Higher Education. 26 September 2013.
  40. ↑ "Home". moidigital.ac.uk.
  41. ↑ Irving, Henry; Townend, Judith (10 February 2016). "Censorship and National Security: Information Control in the Second World War and Present Day". History and Policy. Retrieved 3 July 2016.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.