Bicycle Thieves

Last updated
Bicycle Thieves
Ladri3.jpg
Theatrical release poster
Italian Ladri di biciclette
Directed by Vittorio De Sica
Screenplay by
Story byCesare Zavattini
Based onBicycle Thieves
by Luigi Bartolini
Produced by
Starring
Cinematography Carlo Montuori
Edited by Eraldo Da Roma
Music by Alessandro Cicognini
Production
company
Produzioni De Sica [2]
Distributed by Ente Nazionale Industrie Cinematografiche
Release date
  • 24 November 1948 (1948-11-24)(Italy)
Running time
89 minutes
CountryItaly
LanguageItalian
Budget$133,000 [3]
Box office$428,978 [4]

Bicycle Thieves (Italian : Ladri di biciclette), also known as The Bicycle Thief, [5] is a 1948 Italian neorealist drama film directed by Vittorio De Sica. [6] It follows the story of a poor father searching in post-World War II Rome for his stolen bicycle, without which he will lose the job which was to be the salvation of his young family.

Contents

Adapted for the screen by Cesare Zavattini from the 1946 novel by Luigi Bartolini, and starring Lamberto Maggiorani as the desperate father and Enzo Staiola as his plucky young son, Bicycle Thieves received an Academy Honorary Award (most outstanding foreign language film) in 1950, and in 1952 was deemed the greatest film of all time by Sight & Sound magazine's poll of filmmakers and critics; [7] fifty years later another poll organized by the same magazine ranked it sixth among the greatest-ever films. [8] In the 2012 version of the list the film ranked 33rd among critics and 10th among directors.

The film was also cited by Turner Classic Movies as one of the most influential films in cinema history, [9] and it is considered part of the canon of classic cinema. [10] The film was voted number 3 on the prestigious Brussels 12 list at the 1958 World Expo, and number 4 in Empire magazine's "The 100 Best Films of World Cinema" in 2010. [11] It was also included on the Italian Ministry of Cultural Heritage’s 100 Italian films to be saved, a list of 100 films that "have changed the collective memory of the country between 1942 and 1978." [12]

Plot

In post-World War II Rome, Antonio Ricci desperately needs work to support his wife Maria, his son Bruno and his small baby. He is offered a job posting advertising bills but tells Maria he cannot accept because the job requires a bicycle. Maria resolutely strips the bed of her dowry bedsheets‍—‌prized possessions for a poor family‍—‌and takes them to the pawn shop, where they bring enough to redeem Antonio's pawned bicycle.

On his first day of work, Antonio is at the top of a ladder when a young man steals his bicycle. Antonio runs after him but is thrown off the trail by the thief's confederates. The police file Antonio's complaint but say that there is little they can do.

Advised that stolen goods often surface at the Piazza Vittorio market, Antonio goes there with several friends and Bruno. They find a bicycle frame that might be Antonio's, but the vendors refuse to allow them to examine the serial number. They call over a carabiniere, who orders the vendors to allow him to read the serial number. It does not match that of the missing bicycle, but the officer won't allow them to examine it for themselves.

At the Porta Portese market, Antonio and Bruno spot the thief with an old man. The thief eludes them and the old man feigns ignorance. They follow him into a church where he too slips away from them.

Antonio pursues the thief into a brothel, whose denizens eject them. In the street, hostile neighbors gather as Antonio accuses the thief, who conveniently falls into a fit for which the crowd blames Antonio. Bruno fetches a policeman, who searches the thief's apartment without success. The policeman tells Antonio the case is weak‍—‌Antonio has no witnesses and the neighbors are certain to provide the thief with an alibi. Antonio and Bruno leave in despair amid jeers and threats from the crowd.

Their way home takes them to the Stadio Nazionale PNF football stadium. Antonio sees an unattended bicycle near a doorway and after much anguished indecision, instructs Bruno to take the tram to a stop nearby and wait. Antonio circles the unattended bicycle and jumps on it. Instantly, the hue and cry is raised and Bruno –who has missed the tram –is stunned to see his father pursued, surrounded and pulled from the bicycle. As Antonio is being muscled toward the police station, the bicycle's owner notices Bruno in tears and, in a moment of compassion, tells the others to release Antonio.

Antonio and Bruno then walk off slowly amid a buffeting crowd. Antonio fights back tears and Bruno takes his hand.

Cast

Production

Bicycle Thieves is the best-known work of Italian neorealism, the movement that formally began with Roberto Rossellini's Rome, Open City (1945) and aimed to give cinema a new degree of realism. [13] De Sica had just made Shoeshine (1946), but was unable to get financial backing from any major studio for the film, so he raised the money himself from friends. Wanting to portray the poverty and unemployment of post-war Italy, [14] he co-wrote a script with Cesare Zavattini and others using only the title and few plot devices of a little-known novel of the time by poet and artist Luigi Bartolini. [15] Following the precepts of neorealism, De Sica shot only on location (that is, no studio sets) and cast only untrained actors. (Lamberto Maggiorani, for example, was a factory worker.) That some actors' roles paralleled their lives off screen added realism to the film. [16] De Sica cast Maggiorani when he had brought his young son to an audition for the film. He later cast the 8-year-old Enzo Staiola when he noticed the young boy watching the film's production on a street while helping his father sell flowers. The film's final shot of Antonio and Bruno walking away from the camera into the distance is an homage to many of the films of Charlie Chaplin, who was De Sica's favourite filmmaker. [14]

Uncovering the drama in everyday life, the wonderful in the daily news.

—  Vittorio De Sica in Abbiamo domandato a De Sica perché fa un film dal Ladro di biciclette (We asked De Sica why he makes a movie on the Bicycle Thief) – La fiera letteraria, 6/2/48

Title

The original Italian title is Ladri di biciclette. It literally translates into English as "thieves of bicycles"; both ladri and biciclette are plural. In Bartolini's novel, the title referred to a post-war culture of rampant thievery and disrespect for civil order, countered only by an inept police force and indifferent allied occupiers. [17]

When the film was screened in the United States in 1949, Bosley Crowther referred to it as The Bicycle Thief in his review in The New York Times , [5] and this came to be the title by which the film was known in English. When the film was re-released in the late-1990s, San Francisco Chronicle film critic Bob Graham said that he preferred that version, stating, "Purists have criticized the English title of the film as a poor translation of the Italian ladri, which is plural. What blindness! The Bicycle Thief is one of those wonderful titles whose power does not sink in until the film is over". [18] The 2007 Criterion Collection release in North America uses the title Bicycle Thieves. [19]

Reception

Critical response

When Bicycle Thieves was released in Italy, it was viewed with hostility and as portraying Italians in a negative way. Italian critic Guido Aristarco praised it, but also complained that "sentimentality might at times take the place of artistic emotion." Fellow Italian neorealist film director Luchino Visconti criticized the film, saying that it was a mistake to use a professional actor to dub over Lamberto Maggiorani's dialogue. [14] Luigi Bartolini, the author of the novel from which de Sica drew his title, was highly critical of the film, feeling that the spirit of his book had been thoroughly betrayed because his protagonist was a middle-class intellectual and his theme was the breakdown of civil order. [17]

Contemporary reviews elsewhere were positive. Bosley Crowther, film critic for The New York Times, lauded the film and its message in his review. He wrote, "Again the Italians have sent us a brilliant and devastating film in Vittorio De Sica's rueful drama of modern city life, The Bicycle Thief. Widely and fervently heralded by those who had seen it abroad (where it already has won several prizes at various film festivals), this heart-tearing picture of frustration, which came to [the World Theater] yesterday, bids fair to fulfill all the forecasts of its absolute triumph over here. For once more the talented De Sica, who gave us the shattering Shoeshine , that desperately tragic demonstration of juvenile corruption in post-war Rome, has laid hold upon and sharply imaged in simple and realistic terms a major—indeed, a fundamental and universal—dramatic theme. It is the isolation and loneliness of the little man in this complex social world that is ironically blessed with institutions to comfort and protect mankind". [5] Pierre Leprohon wrote in Cinéma D'Aujourd'hui that "what must not be ignored on the social level is that the character is shown not at the beginning of a crisis but at its outcome. One need only to look at his face, his uncertain gait, his hesitant or fearful attitudes to understand that Ricci is already a victim, a diminished man who has lost his confidence." Then Paris-based Lotte H. Eisner called it the best Italian film since World War II, and UK critic Robert Winnington called it "the most successful record of any foreign film in British cinema." [14]

When the film was re-released in the late 1990s Bob Graham, staff film critic for the San Francisco Chronicle , gave the drama a positive review: "The roles are played by non-actors, Lamberto Maggiorani as the father and Enzo Staiola as the solemn boy, who sometimes appears to be a miniature man. They bring a grave dignity to De Sica's unblinking view of post-war Italy. The wheel of life turns and grinds people down; the man who was riding high in the morning is brought low by nightfall. It is impossible to imagine this story in any other form than De Sica's. The new black-and-white print has an extraordinary range of grey tones that get darker as life closes in". [18] In 1999, Chicago Sun-Times film reviewer Roger Ebert wrote that "The Bicycle Thief is so well-entrenched as an official masterpiece that it is a little startling to visit it again after many years and realize that it is still alive and has strength and freshness. Given an honorary Oscar in 1949, routinely voted one of the greatest films of all time, revered as one of the foundation stones of Italian neorealism, it is a simple, powerful film about a man who needs a job". Ebert added the film to his "The Great Movies" list. [20] In 2020, A. O. Scott praised the film in an essay entitled "Why You Should Still Care About 'Bicycle Thieves'." [21]

Bicycle Thieves is a fixture on the British Film Institute's Sight & Sound critics' and directors' polls of the greatest films ever made. The film ranked 1st and 7th on critics' poll in 1952 and 1962 respectively. It ranked 11th on the magazine's 1992 Critics' poll, 45th in 2002 Critics' Poll [22] and 6th on the 2002 Directors' Top Ten Poll. [23] It was slightly lower in the 2012 directors' poll, 10th [24] and 33rd on the 2012 critics' poll. [25] The Village Voice ranked the film at number 37 in its Top 250 "Best Films of the Century" list in 1999, based on a poll of critics. [26] The film was voted at No. 99 on the list of "100 Greatest Films" by the prominent French magazine Cahiers du cinéma in 2008. [27]

The Japanese filmmaker Akira Kurosawa cited this movie as one of his 100 favorite films. [28] [ when? ] The film was included by the Vatican in a list of important films compiled in 1995, under the category of "Values". [29]

Bicycle Thieves has continued to gain very high praise from contemporary critics, with the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reporting 99% of 70 reviews as of April 2022 as positive, with an average rating of 9.20/10. The site's critics consensus reads, "An Italian neorealism exemplar, Bicycle Thieves thrives on its non-flashy performances and searing emotion." [30]

Awards and nominations

Legacy

Many directors have cited the film as a major influence including Satyajit Ray, [34] Ken Loach, [35] Giorgio Mangiamele, [36] Bimal Roy, [37] Anurag Kashyap, [38] Balu Mahendra, [39] Vetrimaaran and Basu Chatterjee. [40]

The film was noteworthy for film directors of the Iranian New Wave, such as Jafar Panahi and Dariush Mehrjui. [41] [42]

The film was one of 39 foreign films recommended by Martin Scorsese to Colin Levy. [43]

It was parodied in the film The Icicle Thief (1989).[ citation needed ]

The film features in the 1992 Robert Altman film The Player. In this film Griffin Mill (played by Tim Robbins), a Hollywood studio executive, tracks screenwriter David Kahane (played by Vincent D'Onofrio) to a screening of Bicycle Thieves, and stages what he represents as a chance meeting with Kahane.[ citation needed ]

Norman Loftis's film Messenger (1994) is considered to be a remake of Bicycle Thieves. [44] [45]

The episode "The Thief" from the American comedy-drama series Master of None is heavily influenced by Bicycle Thieves.[ citation needed ]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vittorio De Sica</span> Italian film director and actor (1901–1974)

Vittorio De Sica was an Italian film director and actor, a leading figure in the neorealist movement.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cesare Zavattini</span> Italian screenwriter (1902–1989)

Cesare Zavattini was an Italian screenwriter and one of the first theorists and proponents of the Neorealist movement in Italian cinema.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Italian neorealism</span> Italian film movement

Italian neorealism, also known as the Golden Age of Italian Cinema, was a national film movement characterized by stories set amongst the poor and the working class. They are filmed on location, frequently with non-professional actors. They primarily address the difficult economic and moral conditions of post-World War II Italy, representing changes in the Italian psyche and conditions of everyday life, including poverty, oppression, injustice and desperation. Italian Neorealist filmmakers used their films to tell stories that explored the contemporary daily life and struggles of Italians in the post-war period. Italian neorealist films have become explanatory discourse for future generations to understand the history of Italy during a specific period through the storytelling of social life in the context, reflecting the documentary and communicative nature of the film. Some people believe that neorealistic films evolved from Soviet montage films. But in reality, compared to Soviet filmmakers describing the people's opposition to class struggle through their films, neorealist films aim to showcase individuals' resistance to reality in a social environment.

<i>The Icicle Thief</i> 1989 Italian film

The Icicle Thief is a 1989 Italian comedy film directed by Maurizio Nichetti, titled in imitation of Vittorio De Sica's 1948 classic Italian neorealist film The Bicycle Thief. Some feel The Icicle Thief was created as a spoof of neorealism, which predominated Italian cinema after World War II. However, it is generally understood that the film is critical of the impact of consumerism on art, as suggested by the contrast between the nested film and commercials, and the apathy of Italian television viewers in recognising the difference between the two. The film won the Golden St. George at the 16th Moscow International Film Festival.

<i>Umberto D.</i> 1952 Italian film by Vittorio De Sica

Umberto D. is a 1952 Italian neorealist film directed by Vittorio De Sica. Most of the actors were non-professional, including Carlo Battisti who plays the title role of Umberto Domenico Ferrari, a poor elderly man in Rome who is desperately trying to keep his rented room. His landlady is evicting him and his only true friends, the housemaid and his dog Flike are of no help.

<i>My Voyage to Italy</i> 1999 film directed by Martin Scorsese

My Voyage to Italy is a personal documentary by acclaimed Italian-American director Martin Scorsese. The film is a voyage through Italian cinema history, marking influential films for Scorsese and particularly covering the Italian neorealism period.

<i>Miracle in Milan</i> 1951 film by Vittorio De Sica

Miracle in Milan is a 1951 Italian fantasy comedy film directed by Vittorio De Sica. The screenplay was co-written by Cesare Zavattini, based on his novel Totò il Buono. The picture stars Francesco Golisano, Emma Gramatica, Paolo Stoppa, and Guglielmo Barnabò.

Umut is a 1970 Turkish drama film, written and directed by Yılmaz Güney and Şerif Gören, featuring Güney as an illiterate horse-cab driver, who, after losing one of his horses in an accident, sets out into the desert on a quest for a mythical lost treasure. The film, which wasn't released at the time because of a ban by the Film Control Commission in Turkey, won awards at the 2nd Adana Golden Boll Film Festival, the 7th Antalya Golden Orange Film Festival and was screened at the 23rd Cannes Film Festival.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lamberto Maggiorani</span> Italian actor

Lamberto Maggiorani was an Italian actor remembered for his portrayal of Antonio Ricci in the 1948 Vittorio De Sica film Bicycle Thieves.

<i>We All Loved Each Other So Much</i> 1974 film by Ettore Scola

We All Loved Each Other So Much is a 1974 Italian comedy-drama film directed by Ettore Scola, who co-wrote the screenplay with screenwriting duo Age & Scarpelli. It stars Nino Manfredi, Vittorio Gassman, Stefania Sandrelli, Stefano Satta Flores, Giovanna Ralli and Aldo Fabrizi. Widely considered one of the best films by Scola, and a notable example of the commedia all'italiana, it was dedicated to Italian director Vittorio De Sica. In 2008, the film was included on the Italian Ministry of Cultural Heritage's 100 Italian films to be saved, a list of 100 films that "have changed the collective memory of the country between 1942 and 1978."

The 15th New York Film Critics Circle Awards, honored the best filmmaking of 1949.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Luigi Bartolini</span> Italian painter

Luigi Bartolini was an Italian painter, writer, and poet. He is known for his novel, Bicycle Thieves, upon which the Italian neorealist film directed by Vittorio De Sica and of the same title was based. He published over 70 books during his lifetime. His work was also part of the painting event in the art competition at the 1948 Summer Olympics.

The Nastro d'Argento for Best Director is a film award bestowed annually as part of the Nastro d'Argento awards since 1946, organized by the Italian National Association of Film Journalists, the national association of Italian film critics.

<i>The Stolen Children</i> 1992 Italian film

The Stolen Children is a 1992 Italian film directed by Gianni Amelio. The film was selected as the Italian entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 65th Academy Awards, but was not accepted as a nominee.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Piazza Vittorio Emanuele II (Rome)</span>

Piazza Vittorio Emanuele II, also known as Piazza Vittorio, is a piazza in Rome, in the Esquilino rione. It is served by the Vittorio Emanuele Metro station.

Lamberto is an Italian male given name taken from the name Lambert. It may refer to:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">A hundred Italian films to be saved</span> List of the hundred best Italian films

The list of the A hundred Italian films to be saved was created with the aim to report "100 films that have changed the collective memory of the country between 1942 and 1978". Film preservation, or film restoration, describes a series of ongoing efforts among film historians, archivists, museums, cinematheques, and non-profit organizations to rescue decaying film stock and preserve the images they contain. In the widest sense, preservation assures that a movie will continue to exist in as close to its original form as possible.

Eraldo Da Roma was an Italian film editor best known for his work with Roberto Rossellini, Vittorio De Sica, and Michelangelo Antonioni.

The Nastro d'Argento is a film award assigned each year, since 1948, by Sindacato Nazionale dei Giornalisti Cinematografici Italiani, the association of Italian film critics.

A list of books and essays about Vittorio De Sica:

References

  1. 1 2 "Bicycle Thieves (1948)". The Criterion Collection . Retrieved August 1, 2021.
  2. ↑ Gordon, Robert (2008). Bicycle Thieves (Ladri Di Biciclette). New York: Macmillan. p. 26. ISBN   9781844572380 . Retrieved 29 April 2018.
  3. ↑ "Wheels of History". Village Voice. October 6, 1998. Retrieved May 29, 2021.
  4. ↑ "The Bicycle Thieves (1949)". Box Office Mojo . Retrieved October 1, 2014.
  5. 1 2 3 Crowther, Bosley (December 13, 1949). "The Bicycle Thief (1948) THE SCREEN; Vittorio De Sica's 'The Bicycle Thief,' a Drama of Post-War Rome, Arrives at World". The New York Times . Archived from the original on February 7, 2022. Retrieved February 7, 2022.
  6. ↑ Scott, A.O. (August 13, 2020). "Why You Should Still Care About 'Bicycle Thieves' - On the unforgettable heartbreak and enduring pleasures of an Italian neorealist masterpiece". The New York Times . Retrieved August 16, 2020.
  7. ↑ Ebert, Roger (March 19, 1999). "The Bicycle Thief / Bicycle Thieves (1949) review". Chicago Sun-Times . Archived from the original on February 27, 2009. Retrieved July 20, 2010.
  8. ↑ Sight and Sound Top Ten Poll Archived 2017-02-01 at the Wayback Machine , director's list 2002. Last accessed: 2014-01-19.
  9. ↑ Ebert, Roger. "TCM's 15 most influential films of all time, and 10 from me". Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved 8 September 2011.
  10. ↑ Ebert, Roger. "The Bicycle Thief / Bicycle Thieves (1949)". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on 27 February 2009. Retrieved 8 September 2011.
  11. ↑ "The 100 Best Films Of World Cinema – 60. Jean de Florette". Empire. 2019.
  12. ↑ "Ecco i cento film italiani da salvare Corriere della Sera". www.corriere.it. Retrieved 2021-03-11.
  13. ↑ Megan, Ratner Archived 2007-08-10 at the Wayback Machine . GreenCine, "Italian Neo-Realism," 2005. Last accessed: December 30, 2007.
  14. 1 2 3 4 Wakeman, John (1987). World Film Directors: 1890-1945. H.W. Wilson. p. 232. ISBN   978-0-8242-0757-1.
  15. ↑ Gordon, Robert S. C. (2008). Bicycle Thieves (Ladri Di Biciclette). Macmillan. pp. 3–4. ISBN   978-1-84457-238-0.
  16. ↑ "Lamberto Maggiorani Dead; Starred in 'The Bicycle Thief'". The New York Times. The Associated Press. 24 April 1983.
  17. 1 2 Healey, Robin (1998). Twentieth-century Italian Literature in English Translation: An Annotated Bibliography 1929-1997. University of Toronto Press. p. 49. ISBN   978-0-8020-0800-8.
  18. 1 2 Graham, Bob. San Francisco Chronicle, film review, November 6, 1998. Last accessed: December 30, 2007.
  19. ↑ "Bicycle Thieves". The Criterion Collection. Retrieved 2023-01-10.
  20. ↑ "Bicycle Thieves". Roger Ebert. 19 March 1999.
  21. ↑ Scott, A.O. (August 13, 2020). "Why You Should Still Care About 'Bicycle Thieves'". The New York Times . Retrieved September 12, 2021.
  22. ↑ "The Sight & Sound Top Ten Poll 2002 The Rest of Critic's List". old.bfi.org.uk. Archived from the original on 2016-08-13. Retrieved 2021-05-16.
  23. ↑ "Sight & Sound Top Ten Poll 2002 The Rest of Director's List". old.bfi.org.uk. Archived from the original on 2017-02-01. Retrieved 2014-01-19.
  24. ↑ "Directors' Top 100". Sight & Sound. British Film Institute. 2012. Archived from the original on 2016-02-09. Retrieved 2021-05-16.
  25. ↑ "Critics' Top 100". Sight & Sound. British Film Institute. 2012. Archived from the original on 2016-02-07. Retrieved 2021-05-16.
  26. ↑ "Take One: The First Annual Village Voice Film Critics' Poll". The Village Voice. 1999. Archived from the original on 26 August 2007. Retrieved 27 July 2006.
  27. ↑ "Cahiers du cinéma's 100 Greatest Films". Filmdetail. 23 November 2008.
  28. ↑ Thomas-Mason, Lee. "From Stanley Kubrick to Martin Scorsese: Akira Kurosawa once named his top 100 favourite films of all time". Far Out Magazine. Retrieved 23 January 2023.
  29. ↑ "Vatican Best Films List". Official website of the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops . Archived from the original on 2012-04-22. Retrieved 2012-04-20.
  30. ↑ "The Bicycle Thief (1949)". Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved April 27, 2022.
  31. ↑ Ebert, Roger (19 December 2012). "TCM's 15 most influential films of all time, and 10 from me | Roger Ebert's Journal". Roger Ebert. Retrieved 2013-06-29.
  32. ↑ "The 100 Best Films Of World Cinema". Empire.
  33. ↑ "The 100 greatest foreign-language films". BBC Culture. 30 October 2018.
  34. ↑ Robinson, A. Satyajit Ray: A Vision of Cinema. I. B. Tauris.2005. ISBN   1-84511-074-9. p. 48.
  35. ↑ Lamont, Tom (16 May 2010). "Films that changed my life: Ken Loach". London: The Observer. Retrieved 22 July 2019.
  36. ↑ National Film and Sound Archive: 'Il Contratto' on Australianscreen
  37. ↑ Anwar Huda (2004). The Art and science of Cinema. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 100. ISBN   81-269-0348-1.
  38. ↑ Akbar, Irena (14 June 2008). "Why Sica Moved Patna". Indian Express Archive. Retrieved 4 May 2015.
  39. ↑ Mahendra, Balu (7 September 2012). "சினிமாவும் நானும்..." (in Tamil). filmmakerbalumahendra.blogspot.in. Retrieved 9 June 2014.
  40. ↑ "A Manzil of Memories: Rare Memorabilia Of Basu Chatterji's Films". Learning & Creativity. 2014-04-25. Retrieved 2014-05-27.
  41. ↑ "Remarks by JAFAR PANAHI". Film Scouts LLC. Archived from the original on 24 August 2011. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
  42. ↑ Wakeman, John (1987). World Film Directors: 1945-1985. H.W. Wilson. pp. 663–669. ISBN   978-0-8242-0757-1.
  43. ↑ Bell, Crystal (March 27, 2012). "Martin Scorsese Foreign Film List: Director Recommends 39 Films To Young Filmmaker Colin Levy". Huffington Post. Retrieved January 14, 2021.
  44. ↑ Kehr, Dave (October 20, 1995). "'Messenger' Delivers Stark Film Captures 1995 New York". The Daily News. Retrieved April 8, 2018.
  45. ↑ Rooney, David (27 June 1994). "Messenger". Variety.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.