The Nash Rambler established a new segment in the automobile market and is widely acknowledged to be the first successful modern American compact car.[2][3][4] The original Rambler also established the idea of a small but luxurious economy car.[5]
The 1950 through 1955 Nash Rambler was the first model run for this platform. Using the same tooling, AMC reintroduced an almost identical "new" 1958 Rambler American for a second model run. This was a rare feat of having two distinct and successful model runs, an almost unheard-of phenomenon in automotive history.[6]
Development
1950 Nash Rambler Custom Landau Convertible Coupe
Nash-Kelvinator's President George W. Mason saw that the company needed to compete more effectively and insisted a new car had to be different from the existing models in the market offered by the "Big Three" U.S. automakers. Mason also realized the basic problem that had eluded others trying to market smaller-sized cars to Americans: low price was not enough to sell in large volumes, but "also had to be big enough to appeal to families as their primary car."[7] Therefore, the Rambler was designed to be smaller than contemporary cars, yet still able to accommodate five passengers comfortably. Nash engineers had originally penned the styling during World War II.[8]
The new model was the company's entry into the lower-price segment dominated by models from Chevrolet, Ford, and Plymouth. The Rambler was designed to be lighter and have smaller dimensions than the other popular cars. With a strategy of efficiency, Nash could save on materials in its production while owners would have better fuel economy compared to the other cars of the era. The Nash Rambler rode on a 100in (2,540mm)wheelbase, and power came from Nash's proven 172.6cuin (2.8L) L-head (flathead) straight-6 cylinder engine that produced 82hp (61kW; 82hp).
Following the design of the larger "senior" Nash models, the compact Rambler's styling was rounded in form and also had an envelope body – Nash's characteristic styling with fender skirts that also enclosed the front wheels.[9] This design feature did not impair the car's cornering ability significantly.
The compact Rambler line was designed with several body styles, but the inaugural year was limited to a single model: a fully equipped 2-door fixed-profile convertible. The decision to bring the new car out first in a higher market segment with more standard features was a calculated risk by Mason. Foremost in this strategy was the need to give the new Rambler a positive public image. Mason knew the car would fail if seen by the public as a "cheap little car". This was confirmed in small car comparisons in the media that described the "well-equipped and stylish, the little Rambler is economical and easy to drive" with no "stripped-down" versions, but available in only high-end convertible, station wagon, or hardtop (no "B-pillar") body styles.[10] He knew what Crosley was just finding out with its line of mini cars, and what the Henry J would teach Kaiser Motors; namely, that Americans would rather buy a nice used car than a new car that is perceived as inferior or substandard.[11]
Like other fixed-profile convertibles, but unlike traditional convertibles that used frame-free side windows, the Rambler retained the bodywork's doors and rear-side window frames. This metal structure served as the side guides or rails for the retractable waterproof canvas top. This design allowed Nash to utilize its unibody construction on its new compact. It made the body very rigid for an open-top car, without additional bracing. The strength of the windshield pillars and roof-rail structure was demonstrated by the entire car flipped upside down and the rails and supports were undamaged.[12] The convertible top is cable-driven and electrically operated. The design is similar to other fixed-profile convertibles including the 1936 Fiat 500 "Topolino", Nissan Figaro (1991), Citroën 2CV (1948–1990), Vespa 400 (1957), and the 1957 Fiat 500 (1957) as well as its 2007 Fiat 500 successor.
In developing this new car, Nash had originally planned to call it the Diplomat.[13] This name would have rounded out the Nash family of cars; as for 1950, the 600 line was renamed the Statesman, and the Ambassador remained the flagship line.[13] When the managers learned that Dodge had already reserved the Diplomat name for a planned two-door hardtop body style, Nash delved into its past, and resurrected the Rambler name from an 1897 prototype and its first production model, in 1902.[14] Rambler was also one of the popular early American automobile brands. On 22 May 1950, the automaker filed trademarks for the Rambler and also the Statesman names.[15]
The historical context of the Nash Rambler, along with the Nash-Healey and later the Metropolitan, was that U.S. citizens were exposed to and gained experience with the smaller, more efficient compact, and sporty European cars during the Second World War. Nash's CEO had also visited Italy, France, and England to observe the development of small cars had developed in those markets.[13] Some of the styling cues for the convertible Rambler came from Italian designs.[16] The new car's input included the approach of more compact cars that came from Nash-Kelvinator having a wide market overseas. This influence is also seen directly in the Pininfarina designed models. American Motors would later continue to import European design and styling flair for its products, such as the Hornet Sportabouts by Gucci, the Javelins by Pierre Cardin, and the Matador coupes by Oleg Cassini.
The Nash Rambler was introduced on 13 April 1950, in the middle of the model year.[17] The new Rambler was available only as an upmarket two-door convertible – designated the "Landau". Without the weight of a roof, and with a low wind resistance body design for the time, the inline 6-cylinder engine could deliver solid performance and deliver fuel economy up to 30mpg‑US (7.8L/100km; 36mpg‑imp) and even more with the optional automatic overdrive.[18]
Several factors were incorporated into the compact Nash Rambler's marketing mix that included making the most from the limited steel supplies during the Korean War, as well as the automaker selecting a strategy for profit maximization from the new Rambler line. The new Nash Rambler came only in a convertible body, a style that had a higher price in the marketplace and incorporated more standard features that make the open-top models suitable more for leisure-type use than ordinary transportation.[19] With a base price of $1,808 (equivalent to approximately $22,896 in today's funds[20]), the Nash Rambler was priced slightly lower than the base convertible models from its intended competition. To further increase the value to buyers, the Nash Rambler was well equipped compared to the competition and included numerous items as standard equipment such as whitewall tires, full wheel covers, electric clock, and even a pushbutton AM radio that were options available at extra cost on all other cars at that time.
In summary, "it was a smartly styled small car. People also liked its low price and the money-saving economy of its peppy 6-cylinder engine."[21] The abbreviated first year of production saw sales of 9,330 Nash Rambler convertibles.
Nash Rambler Custom convertible
1951
In 1951, the Nash Rambler line was enlarged to include a two-door station wagon and a two-door pillarlesshardtop – designated the Country Club. Both the hardtop and convertible models included additional safety features.[22]
Two levels of trim were available: Custom and Super.
A car tested by the British magazine The Motor in 1951 had a top speed of 80.9mph (130km/h) and could accelerate from 0–60mph (0–97km/h) in 21.0 seconds. Fuel consumption of 25.2mpg‑imp (11.2L/100km; 21.0mpg‑US) was recorded. The test car cost $1,808 in the U.S., but British sales had not at the time started.[23]
1952 Nash Rambler "Custom Greenbrier" station wagon1952 interior
1952
There were no major changes for the 1952 model year. Models included a new Deliveryman 2-door utility wagon for $1,892.[25] The "Custom" models featured Nash's Weather Eye conditioning system and an AM radio as standard equipment. The new Greenbrier station wagons received upgraded trim with two-tone painted exteriors and they were priced at $2,119, the same as the Custom Landau Convertible model.[25]
The 1950–1952 Nash Ramblers "gained instant popularity with buyers who liked its looks, as well as loyalty among customers who appreciated its quality engineering and performance."[1] A total of 53,000 Nash Ramblers were made for the year.[25]
The Rambler received its first restyling in 1953 and resembled the "senior" Nash models that had received all-new "Airflyte" styling the year before. The new styling was again credited to Italian automobile designer Battista "Pinin" Farina.[26] The hood line was lowered and a new hood ornament, designed by George Petty was optional. The "racy" ornament "was a sexy woman leaning into the future, bust down, and pointing the way."[27]
The standard engines were increased with manual transmission cars receiving a 184cuin (3.0L) I6 producing 85hp (63kW; 86PS), while a 90hp (67kW; 91PS)195.6cuin (3.2L)I6 powered cars with the optional "Hydra-Matic" automatic supplied by General Motors. The Custom models added Nash's "Weather Eye" heating and ventilation system, as well as a radio as standard equipment, with the convertible and hardtop versions all getting a continental tire at no extra cost.[26]
The marketing campaign focused on the Nash Rambler as a second family car. Advertisements also featured the wife of Jimmy Stewart and her Country Club 2-door hardtop she described as "a woman's dream-of-a-car come true!" and promoting buyers to spend "one wonderful hour" test driving to discover how "among two-car families – four out of five prefer to drive their Rambler."[26]
A survey of owners of 1953 Ramblers conducted by Popular Mechanics indicated the majority listed their car's economy as the feature they like best.[28] After they had driven a total of 1,500,000 miles (2,400,000km), owners' complaints included a lack of rear-seat legroom, water leaks, and poor dimmer switch position, but none of the Rambler drivers rated acceleration as unsatisfactory.[28] Fully 29 percent had no complaints and "only four percent of Rambler owners described the car as too small and 67 percent rated their Ramblers as excellent over-all."[28]
Production for the model year was 31,788 and included 9 Deliveryman models in the station wagon body, 15,255 Country Club hardtops, 10,598 Convertible Landaus, 10,600 station wagons (of which 3,536 were in the Greenbrier trim and 7,035 were Customs, with 3M's DI-NOC simulated wood-grain trim), and 1,114 standard wagons.[26]
1953 Nash Rambler Country Club
1953 Nash Rambler Deliveryman
1953 Nash Rambler Custom 2-door Station Wagon
1954
1954 Nash Rambler Custom Country Club 2-door hardtop
After offering only two-door-only models, Nash introduced a four-door sedan and a four-door station wagon in the Nash Rambler line starting with the 1954 model year. This was the automaker's response to demands of larger families for more roomy Ramblers.[29] The four-door body styles rode on a longer, 108in (2,743mm) wheelbase. Following the industry practice at the time, the heater and radio were now made optional. Added to the options list was Nash's exclusive integrated automobile air conditioning system, a "very sophisticated setup" for the time incorporated heating, ventilation, and air conditioning in one system that was "priced lower than any other competing system; at $345, it was a remarkable advance."[30]
The four-door Rambler sedan was at first only available in "Custom" trim. The "Country Club" hardtop became available in the lower-priced "Super" trim and without the "Custom" model's standard Continental tire (external spare tire carrier). The 4-door station wagons were designated Cross Country. They featured an unusual roofline that followed the slope of the sedan's roof, then dipped down behind the rear seat area before leveling and continuing rearward. The design by Bill Reddig allowed the use of the same dies to produce door framing for sedans and station wagons, while the dip in the rear portion of the roof included a roof rack as standard equipment to reduce the visual effect of the wagon's lowered roofline.[29]
There was turmoil in the U.S. automobile market as the Ford-Chevy sales war broke out and the two largest domestic automakers cut prices to gain sales volume.[30] This battle decimated the remaining independent automakers in their search for customers. The marketing battle put a squeeze on the much smaller independent automakers, so even though the Nash Rambler economy cars proved popular in the marketplace, they were not particularly profitable for the company.[31]
On 1 May 1954, Nash and Hudson Motor Car Company announced a merger, and the successor corporation was named American Motors Corporation (AMC). Following the merger, Hudson dealers began receiving Ramblers that were badged as Hudson brand cars. The Hudson Ramblers and Nash Ramblers were identical, save for the brand name and minor badging.
1955
1955 Nash Rambler brochure describing the interiors1955 Hudson Rambler Super 2-door1955 Rambler Country Club
The Nash Rambler's most significant change for the 1955 model year was opening the front wheel wells resulting in a 6-foot (2m) decrease in the turn-circle diameter from previous year's versions, with the two-door models having the smallest in the industry at 36ft (11m).[32] The "traditional" Nash fixed fender skirts were removed and the front track (the distance between the center points of the wheels on the axle as they come in contact with the road) was increased to be even greater than was the Rambler's rear tread.[32] Designers Edmund Anderson, Pinin Farina, and Meade Moore did not like the design element that was insisted by George Mason, so soon as Mason died, "Anderson hastily redesigned the front fenders."[33] Tongue-in-cheek, Popular Science magazine described the altered design for 1955: the "little Rambler loses its pants."[34]
As part of the facelift for 1955, the Rambler's grille was also redesigned with only the center emblem differentiating the cars now sold by both Nash and Hudson dealers. The Rambler was a new model for Hudson dealers and it replaced the compact Hudson Jet.[35]
The interiors of the economical Nash Rambler were designed by Helene Rother to also appeal to the feminine eye. American Motors featured "Created to Your Discriminating Taste" in the car's marketing knowing what women looked for in a car and Rother's designs featured elegant, stylish, and expensive fabrics that coordinated in colors and trim.[36]
Model and trim combinations were again reshuffled with a two-door Suburban and Club two-door sedans available in "Deluxe" or "Super" versions. Four-door sedans and wagons came as Super or Custom models, while a new Deluxe four-door sedan was introduced. The pillarless Country Clubhardtop was reduced to only the "Custom" trim, while the convertible model was no longer available.
Fleet sales-only versions included a Deliveryman wagon that was not shown in the regular catalog, as well as another new model, a three-passenger business coupe: a two-door sedan with no rear seat.[37]
The automaker's marketing efforts included sponsorship of the Disneyland television show on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) network. The inaugural broadcast was on 25 October 1955; just five days after the new Ramblers debuted in both Nash and Hudson dealerships, and the Disney show quickly became one of the top-watched programs in the U.S., thus helping AMC sell more cars.[38]
The focus continued on fuel efficiency and economy of operation. A Rambler four-door set a new record for cars with automatic transmissions achieving 27.47mpg‑US (8.56L/100km; 32.99mpg‑imp) in the 1955 Mobil Economy Run.[37]
The U.S. domestic market was turning to bigger and bigger cars; therefore, prospects for the compact Nash Rambler line were limited and production was discontinued after the 1955 model year.[6]
Motorsports
The smallest car in the 13 July 1951, 400-lap NASCAR sanctioned Short TrackLate Model Division race in Lanham, Maryland, was a Nash Rambler Country Club (two-door hardtop).[39][40] Owned by Williams Nash Motors of Bethesda, Maryland, the car was driven to victory by Tony Bonadies of Bronx, New York.[41] He stayed in the back of the 25-car field on the quarter-mile (0.40km) track until making a steady move up to the lead position. The Nash Rambler was also the only car to run the entire 100-mile (161km) race without making a pit stop.[42][43]
On 18 July 1952, the NASCAR Short Track race at the Lanham Speedway, was 400 laps on a 0.2-mile (0.32km) paved oval for a total of 80 miles (129km).[44] Tony Bonadies finished the race in 4th place in a 1952 Nash.[45]
Replacement
The new compact-sized 1956 Nash Rambler in right-hand drive (New Zealand)
The sales war between Ford and Chevrolet that took place between 1953 and 1954 reduced the market share for the remaining automakers trying to compete against the standard-sized models offered by the domestic Big Three (General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler).[46] American Motors responded to the changing market by focusing development on the 108in (2,743mm) wheelbase four-door versions that it had introduced in 1954.[6] Production of the original compact Nash Rambler ended in 1955 as AMC introduced an all-new Rambler for the 1956 model year. These used the 108in (2,743mm) wheelbase and became larger cars, but were "compact" compared to ones made by the Big Three. The bigger Rambler models were sold by both Nash and Hudson dealers and they carried respective Nash and Hudson brand logos.[47]
The new for 1956 Rambler was arguably "the most important car American Motors ever built" in that it not only created and defined a new market segment, emphasized the virtues of compact design, but also enabled the automaker to prosper in the post-World War II marketplace that shifted from a seller's to a buyer's market.[48] The new Ramblers came only as four-door models. Along with the usual four-door sedan and the station wagon was a new four-door hardtop sedan, as well as an industry first, a four-door hardtop station wagon.[49][50] An OHV version of the 195.6cuin (3.2L) engine was also introduced for 1956 to replace the L-head version that was used in previous models. The OHV I6 was the only engine available in the 1956 Ramblers, as the new AMC V8s did not appear until the 1957 model year.
Nash Rambler Palm Beach
American Motors' relationship with the Italian designer Battista 'Pinin' Farina as a styling consultant resulted in the 1956 Nash Rambler Palm Beach.[51] All the major mechanical components for the concept car came from a 100in (2,540mm) wheelbase Nash Rambler.[52] The only indication of the origin of the show car are the Rambler "R" emblems on the hubcaps.[53]
Influenced by aerodynamic and technical innovations, the Palm Beach was constructed "so that it could be introduced to the market in a short period of time."[54] The fully functional show car was intended as a replacement for the Nash-Healey, but AMC no longer included a sports car in its lineup by 1956.[55]
Revival
The revived Rambler American
With AMC's focus on economical automobiles, management saw an opportunity with the economic recession of 1958 to revive the small 100in (2,540mm) wheelbase Nash Rambler.[56] The automaker had retained the old tooling and the old model would fit between the bigger 108in (2,743mm) wheelbase family-sized Ramblers and the imported two-seat 85in (2,159mm) wheelbase Nash Metropolitan. This would be a smaller and more efficient alternative to the standard-sized cars that were marketed by the domestic Big Three at that time. The old Nash design was slightly modified and used for AMC's "new" 1958 Rambler American.[57]
Legacy
The book listing the 75 noteworthy American automobiles that made news from 1895 until 1970, documents "the 1950 Nash Rambler was a historic car on two counts: its ancestry and its small size."[58] While other compact-sized cars were introduced by the small independent automakers, such as the Henry J, Hudson Jet, and Willys Aero, only the Rambler survived long enough to establish a real place in automotive history.[6]
Moreover, the compact-sized Nash Rambler automobile evolved into a business strategy for American Motors as the company firmly associated itself with small cars in the U.S. marketplace.[59] In the 1960s, the automaker "prospered on the back of the Nash Rambler, the compact that recalled the name of the vehicle Thomas B. Jeffrey built in 1902 at the Kenosha, Wisconsin factory that continued to be AMC's main production plant."[59]
The Nash Rambler succeeded where others "tried to entice US consumers looking for practical, economical automobiles" during an era "when all Detroit had to offer were pricey, ostentatious behemoths."[60] The Big Three domestic automakers exited the entry-level car market to foreign makes starting in the early 1950s.[60] Nash was the only American manufacturer to get the compact formula right by offering Rambler "well equipped and priced sensibly"; "styling that was fresh, distinctive, and attractive"; and for developing "the original Rambler's run in 1950–55 was that there was a full line of Ramblers in many body styles, including a jaunty convertible."[60]
According to automotive historian Bill Vance, the Nash Ramblers "are not much remembered, but they did provide reliable, economical, and sturdy service."[6] "Nash's reputation for building eminently sensible vehicles means that their products are often overlooked by the modern-day enthusiast."[61]
In popular culture
The Nash Rambler is featured in the 1958 hit song "Beep Beep." The singer, driving a Cadillac, is shocked to see a "little Nash Rambler" apparently trying to drag-race his bigger, stronger car, and keeping up with it. In the end, it turns out the Rambler's driver did not know how to get out of second gear. At the end of 1959, Time magazine reported that the song helped push Rambler to set sales records along with AMC doubling production compared to the previous year.[62][63]
↑ The New Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol.1. 2005. p.333. ISBN978-1-59339-236-9. first modern American compact car, the Rambler.
↑ Szudarek, Robert G. (1996). How Detroit became the automotive capital: 100th anniversary. Society of Automotive Engineers. p.193. ISBN978-0-614-22229-6. Retrieved 9 December 2023– via Google Books. the Nash-Kelvinator Corporation introduced the first modern compact car in 1950, and revived the name "Rambler" that dated back to 1902 when Thomas B. Jeffery created the first Rambler in Kenosha, Wisconsin.
↑ Foster, Patrick R. (2004). The Story of Jeep. Krause Publications. p.89. ISBN978-0-87349-735-0. Nash-Kelvinator Corporation, the innovative Detroit-based independent, introduced its Rambler, the first American compact car, in March of 1950.
↑ "Report on the small cars". Changing Times, Kiplinger's Personal Finance. Vol.7, no.9. September 1953. pp.14–15. Retrieved 9 December 2023– via Google Books.
American Motors Corporation was an American automobile manufacturing company formed by the merger of Nash-Kelvinator Corporation and Hudson Motor Car Company on May 1, 1954. At the time, it was the largest corporate merger in U.S. history.
Rambler is an automobile brand name that was first used by the Thomas B. Jeffery Company between 1900 and 1914.
A convertible or cabriolet is a passenger car that can be driven with or without a roof in place. The methods of retracting and storing the roof vary across eras and manufacturers.
Nash Motors Company was an American automobile manufacturer based in Kenosha, Wisconsin from 1916 until 1937. From 1937 through 1954, Nash Motors was the automotive division of Nash-Kelvinator. As sales of smaller firms declined after 1950 in the wake of the domestic Big Three automakers’ advantages in production, distribution, and revenue, Nash merged with Hudson Motors to form American Motors Corporation (AMC). Nash automobile production continued from 1954 through 1957 under AMC.
Compact car is a vehicle size class—predominantly used in North America—that sits between subcompact cars and mid-size cars. "Small family car" is a British term and a part of the C-segment in the European car classification. However, before the downsizing of the United States car industry in the 1970s and 1980s, larger vehicles with wheelbases up to 110 in (2.79 m) were considered "compact cars" in the United States.
The Ambassador is an automobile manufactured and marketed by American Motors Corporation (AMC) from 1957 through 1974 over eight generations, available in two- and four-door sedan, two-door hardtop, four-door station wagon as well as two-door convertible body styles. It was classified as a full-size car from 1957 through 1961, mid-size from 1962 until 1966, and again full-size from 1967 through 1974 model years.
A hardtop is a rigid form of automobile roof, typically metal, and integral to the vehicle's design, strength, and style. The term typically applies to a pillarless hardtop, a car body style without a B-pillar. The term "pillared hardtop" was used in the 1970s to refer to cars that had a B-pillar but had frameless door glass like a pillarless hardtop.
The Nash Metropolitan is an American automobile assembled in England and marketed from 1953 until 1962.
The AMC Matador is a series of American automobiles that were manufactured and marketed by American Motors Corporation (AMC) across two generations, from 1971 through 1973 (mid-size) and 1974 until 1978 (full-size), in two-door hardtop and coupe versions, as well as in four-door sedan and station wagon body styles.
The AMC Rebel is a midsized car produced by American Motors Corporation (AMC) from the 1967 until the 1970 model year. It replaced the Rambler Classic. The Rebel was replaced by the similar AMC Matador for the 1971 model year. The Rebel was positioned as the high-volume seller in the independent automaker's line of models.
The Rambler American is a compact car that was manufactured by the American Motors Corporation (AMC) between 1958 and 1969. The American was the second incarnation of AMC forerunner Nash Motors' compact Rambler that was introduced in 1950 and marketed after the merger with Hudson Motors under both marques during the 1954 and 1955 model years.
The Nash Ambassador is a luxury automobile produced by Nash Motors from 1927 until 1957. It was a top trim level for the first five years, then from 1932 on a standalone model. Ambassadors were lavishly equipped and beautifully constructed, earning them the nickname "the Kenosha Duesenberg".
The Rambler Classic is an intermediate-sized automobile built and marketed by American Motors Corporation (AMC) from the 1961 through 1966 model years. The Classic replaced the Rambler Six and Rambler Rebel V8 names, which were retired at the end of the 1960 model year.
The Rambler Rebel is an automobile that was produced by the American Motors Corporation (AMC) of Kenosha, Wisconsin for the 1957 through 1960 model years, as well as again for 1966 and 1967.
The Hudson Hornet is a full-size car manufactured by Hudson Motor Car Company of Detroit, Michigan from 1951 until 1954, when Nash-Kelvinator and Hudson merged to form American Motors Corporation (AMC). Hudson automobiles continued to be marketed under the Hudson brand name through the 1957 model year.
The Hudson Jet is a compact-sized automobile produced by the Hudson Motor Car Company of Detroit, Michigan, during the 1953 and 1954 model years. The Jet was the automaker's response to the popular Nash Rambler.
The Hudson Wasp is an automobile built and marketed by the Hudson Motor Car Company of Detroit, Michigan, from the 1952 through the 1956 model years. After Hudson merged with Nash Motors, the Wasp was then built by American Motors Corporation in Kenosha, Wisconsin, and marketed under its Hudson marque for model years 1955 and 1956.
The Hudson Commodore is an automobile that was produced by the Hudson Motor Car Company of Detroit, Michigan between 1941 and 1952. During its time in production, the Commodore was the largest and most luxurious Hudson model.
George Walter Mason was an American industrialist. During his career Mason served as the chairman and CEO of the Kelvinator Corporation (1928-1937), chairman and CEO of the Nash-Kelvinator Corporation (1937-1954), and chairman and CEO of American Motors Corporation (1954).
The Rambler Six and the Rambler V8 are intermediate sized automobiles that were built and marketed by American Motors Corporation (AMC) for model years 1956 through 1960.
References
Conde, John A. (1987). The American Motors Family Album. American Motors Corporation. OCLC3185581.
Vehicles sold under Renault marque in gold background
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