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In mathematics, a periodic sequence (sometimes called a cycle[ citation needed ]) is a sequence for which the same terms are repeated over and over:
The number p of repeated terms is called the period (period). [1]
A (purely) periodic sequence (with period p), or a p-periodic sequence, is a sequence a1, a2, a3, ... satisfying
for all values of n. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] If a sequence is regarded as a function whose domain is the set of natural numbers, then a periodic sequence is simply a special type of periodic function.[ citation needed ] The smallest p for which a periodic sequence is p-periodic is called its least period [1] [6] or exact period. [6] [ verification needed ]
Every constant function is 1-periodic. [4]
The sequence is periodic with least period 2. [2]
The sequence of digits in the decimal expansion of 1/7 is periodic with period 6:
More generally, the sequence of digits in the decimal expansion of any rational number is eventually periodic (see below). [7] [ verification needed ]
The sequence of powers of −1 is periodic with period two:
More generally, the sequence of powers of any root of unity is periodic. The same holds true for the powers of any element of finite order in a group.[ citation needed ]
A periodic point for a function f : X → X is a point x whose orbit
is a periodic sequence. Here, means the n-fold composition of f applied to x. [6] [ verification needed ] Periodic points are important in the theory of dynamical systems. Every function from a finite set to itself has a periodic point; cycle detection is the algorithmic problem of finding such a point.[ citation needed ]
Any periodic sequence can be constructed by element-wise addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of periodic sequences consisting of zeros and ones. Periodic zero and one sequences can be expressed as sums of trigonometric functions:
A sequence is eventually periodic if it can be made periodic by dropping some finite number of terms from the beginning. For example, the sequence of digits in the decimal expansion of 1/56 is eventually periodic:
A sequence is ultimately periodic if it satisfies the condition for some r and sufficiently large k. [1]
A sequence is asymptotically periodic if its terms approach those of a periodic sequence. That is, the sequence x1, x2, x3, ... is asymptotically periodic if there exists a periodic sequence a1, a2, a3, ... for which
For example, the sequence
is asymptotically periodic, since its terms approach those of the periodic sequence 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, ....[ citation needed ]
In mathematics, the binomial coefficients are the positive integers that occur as coefficients in the binomial theorem. Commonly, a binomial coefficient is indexed by a pair of integers n ≥ k ≥ 0 and is written It is the coefficient of the xk term in the polynomial expansion of the binomial power (1 + x)n; this coefficient can be computed by the multiplicative formula
Bessel functions, first defined by the mathematician Daniel Bernoulli and then generalized by Friedrich Bessel, are canonical solutions y(x) of Bessel's differential equation
In mathematics, the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) converts a finite sequence of equally-spaced samples of a function into a same-length sequence of equally-spaced samples of the discrete-time Fourier transform (DTFT), which is a complex-valued function of frequency. The interval at which the DTFT is sampled is the reciprocal of the duration of the input sequence. An inverse DFT is a Fourier series, using the DTFT samples as coefficients of complex sinusoids at the corresponding DTFT frequencies. It has the same sample-values as the original input sequence. The DFT is therefore said to be a frequency domain representation of the original input sequence. If the original sequence spans all the non-zero values of a function, its DTFT is continuous, and the DFT provides discrete samples of one cycle. If the original sequence is one cycle of a periodic function, the DFT provides all the non-zero values of one DTFT cycle.
In mathematics, the trigonometric functions are real functions which relate an angle of a right-angled triangle to ratios of two side lengths. They are widely used in all sciences that are related to geometry, such as navigation, solid mechanics, celestial mechanics, geodesy, and many others. They are among the simplest periodic functions, and as such are also widely used for studying periodic phenomena through Fourier analysis.
A Fourier series is an expansion of a periodic function into a sum of trigonometric functions. The Fourier series is an example of a trigonometric series, but not all trigonometric series are Fourier series. The result of the summation is a periodic function whose functional form is determined by the choices of cycle length, the number of components, and their amplitudes and phase parameters. With appropriate choices, one cycle of the summation can be made to approximate an arbitrary function in that interval. The number of components is theoretically infinite, in which case the other parameters can be chosen to cause the series to converge to almost any well behaved periodic function. The components of a particular function are determined by analysis techniques described in this article. Sometimes the components are known first, and the unknown function is synthesized by a Fourier series. Such is the case of a discrete-time Fourier transform.
A periodic function is a function that repeats its values at regular intervals. For example, the trigonometric functions, which repeat at intervals of radians, are periodic functions. Periodic functions are used throughout science to describe oscillations, waves, and other phenomena that exhibit periodicity. Any function that is not periodic is called aperiodic.
A square wave is a non-sinusoidal periodic waveform in which the amplitude alternates at a steady frequency between fixed minimum and maximum values, with the same duration at minimum and maximum. In an ideal square wave, the transitions between minimum and maximum are instantaneous.
In the physical sciences, the Airy function (or Airy function of the first kind) Ai(x) is a special function named after the British astronomer George Biddell Airy (1801–1892). The function Ai(x) and the related function Bi(x), are linearly independent solutions to the differential equation
In mathematics, the digamma function is defined as the logarithmic derivative of the gamma function:
In mathematics, the Hurwitz zeta function is one of the many zeta functions. It is formally defined for complex variables s with Re(s) > 1 and a ≠ 0, −1, −2, … by
In signal processing, a finite impulse response (FIR) filter is a filter whose impulse response is of finite duration, because it settles to zero in finite time. This is in contrast to infinite impulse response (IIR) filters, which may have internal feedback and may continue to respond indefinitely.
In quantum mechanics, the particle in a one-dimensional lattice is a problem that occurs in the model of a periodic crystal lattice. The potential is caused by ions in the periodic structure of the crystal creating an electromagnetic field so electrons are subject to a regular potential inside the lattice. It is a generalization of the free electron model, which assumes zero potential inside the lattice.
In mathematics, the Poisson summation formula is an equation that relates the Fourier series coefficients of the periodic summation of a function to values of the function's continuous Fourier transform. Consequently, the periodic summation of a function is completely defined by discrete samples of the original function's Fourier transform. And conversely, the periodic summation of a function's Fourier transform is completely defined by discrete samples of the original function. The Poisson summation formula was discovered by Siméon Denis Poisson and is sometimes called Poisson resummation.
In mathematical analysis, asymptotic analysis, also known as asymptotics, is a method of describing limiting behavior.
In mathematics, a series expansion is a technique that expresses a function as an infinite sum, or series, of simplier functions. It is a method for calculating a function that cannot be expressed by just elementary operators.
In mathematics, Mathieu functions, sometimes called angular Mathieu functions, are solutions of Mathieu's differential equation
In mathematics, sine and cosine are trigonometric functions of an angle. The sine and cosine of an acute angle are defined in the context of a right triangle: for the specified angle, its sine is the ratio of the length of the side that is opposite that angle to the length of the longest side of the triangle, and the cosine is the ratio of the length of the adjacent leg to that of the hypotenuse. For an angle , the sine and cosine functions are denoted simply as and .
In mathematical analysis, the Dirichlet kernel, named after the German mathematician Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet, is the collection of periodic functions defined as
In mathematics, the Dottie number is a constant that is the unique real root of the equation
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