Phylloxera

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Phylloxera
Dactylosphaera vitifolii 1 meyers 1888 v13 p621.png
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Sternorrhyncha
Family: Phylloxeridae
Genus: Daktulosphaira
Shimer, 1866 [1]
Species:
D. vitifoliae
Binomial name
Daktulosphaira vitifoliae
(Fitch, 1855)
Galls made by D. vitifoliae on leaf of Vitis sp. Daktulosphaira vitifoliae. closeup.jpg
Galls made by D. vitifoliae on leaf of Vitis sp.

Grape phylloxera is an insect pest of grapevines worldwide, originally native to eastern North America. Grape phylloxera (Daktulosphaira vitifoliae (Fitch 1855) belong to the family Phylloxeridae, within the order Hemiptera, bugs); originally described in France as Phylloxera vastatrix; equated to the previously described Daktulosphaera vitifoliae, Phylloxera vitifoliae. The insect is commonly just called phylloxera ( /fɪˈlɒksərə/ ; from Ancient Greek : φύλλον, leaf, and ξηρός, dry).

Contents

These almost microscopic, pale yellow sap-sucking insects, related to aphids, feed on the roots and leaves of grapevines (depending on the phylloxera genetic strain). On Vitis vinifera , the resulting deformations on roots ("nodosities" and "tuberosities") and secondary fungal infections can girdle roots, gradually cutting off the flow of nutrients and water to the vine. [2] Nymphs also form protective galls on the undersides of grapevine leaves of some Vitis species and overwinter under the bark or on the vine roots; these leaf galls are typically only found on the leaves of American vines.

American vine species (such as Vitis labrusca ) have evolved [3] to have several natural defenses against phylloxera. The roots of the American vines exude a sticky sap that repels the nymph form by clogging its mouth when it tries to feed from the vine. If the nymph is successful in creating a feeding wound on the root, American vines respond by forming a protective layer of tissue to cover the wound and protect it from secondary bacterial or fungal infections. [2]

Currently there is no cure for phylloxera and unlike other grape diseases such as powdery or downy mildew, there is no chemical control or response. The only successful means of controlling phylloxera has been the grafting of phylloxera-resistant American rootstock (usually hybrid varieties created from the Vitis berlandieri , Vitis riparia and Vitis rupestris species) to more susceptible European vinifera vines. [2]

Biology

Phylloxera nymphs feeding on the roots Wurzellaeuse.jpg
Phylloxera nymphs feeding on the roots

Phylloxera has a complex life-cycle of up to 18 stages, that can be divided into four principal forms: sexual form, leaf form, root form, and winged form.

The sexual form begins with male and female eggs laid on the underside of young grape leaves. The male and female at this stage lack a digestive system, and once hatched, they mate and then die. Before the female dies, she lays one winter egg in the bark of the vine's trunk. This egg develops into the leaf form. This nymph, the fundatrix (stem mother), climbs onto a leaf and lays eggs parthenogenetically in a leaf gall that she creates by injecting saliva into the leaf. The nymphs that hatch from these eggs may move to other leaves, or move to the roots where they begin new infections in the root form. In this form they perforate the root to find nourishment, infecting the root with a poisonous secretion that stops it from healing. This poison eventually kills the vine. This nymph reproduces by laying eggs for up to seven more generations (which also can reproduce parthenogenetically) each summer. These offspring spread to other roots of the vine, or to the roots of other vines through cracks in the soil. The generation of nymphs that hatch in the autumn hibernate in the roots and emerge next spring when the sap begins to rise. In humid areas, the nymphs develop into the winged form, else they perform the same role without wings. These nymphs start the cycle again by either staying on the vine to lay male and female eggs on the bottom side of young grape leaves, or flying to an uninfected vine to do the same. [4]

Phylloxera eggs inside a leaf gall Reblausgalle mit Eier der Mutterlaus.tif
Phylloxera eggs inside a leaf gall

Many attempts have been made to interrupt this life cycle to eradicate phylloxera, but it has proven to be extremely adaptable, as no one stage of the life cycle is solely dependent upon another for the propagation of the species.

Fighting the "phylloxera plague"

"The phylloxera, a true gourmet, finds out the best vineyards and attaches itself to the best wines." Cartoon from Punch, 6 Sep. 1890) Phylloxera cartoon.png
"The phylloxera, a true gourmet, finds out the best vineyards and attaches itself to the best wines."
Cartoon from Punch, 6 Sep. 1890)

In the late 19th century the phylloxera epidemic destroyed most of the vineyards for wine grapes in Europe, most notably in France. [5] Phylloxera was introduced to Europe when avid botanists in Victorian England collected specimens of American vines in the 1850s. Because phylloxera is native to North America, the native grape species are at least partially resistant. By contrast, the European wine grape Vitis vinifera is very susceptible to the insect. The epidemic devastated vineyards in Britain and then moved to the European mainland, destroying most of the European grape growing industry. In 1863, the first vines began to deteriorate inexplicably in the southern Rhône region of France. The problem spread rapidly across the continent. In France alone, total wine production fell from 84.5 million hectolitres in 1875 to only 23.4 million hectolitres in 1889. [6] Some estimates hold that between two-thirds and nine-tenths of all European vineyards were destroyed.

In France, one of the desperate measures of grape growers was to bury a live toad under each vine to draw out the "poison". [6] Areas with soils composed principally of sand or schist were spared, and the spread was slowed in dry climates, but gradually phylloxera spread across the continent. A significant amount of research was devoted to finding a solution to the phylloxera problem, and two major solutions gradually emerged: grafting cuttings onto resistant rootstocks and hybridization.

Response

Francois Baco, creator of Baco blanc, was one of many grape breeders to introduce hybrid wine grape varieties in response to the phylloxera epidemic. FrancoisBacoWikip.jpg
François Baco, creator of Baco blanc, was one of many grape breeders to introduce hybrid wine grape varieties in response to the phylloxera epidemic.

By the end of the 19th century, hybridization became a popular avenue of research for stopping phylloxera. Hybridization is the breeding of Vitis vinifera with resistant species. Most native American grapes are naturally phylloxera resistant ( Vitis aestivalis , rupestris, and riparia are particularly so, while Vitis labrusca has a somewhat weak resistance to it) but have aromas that are off-putting to palates accustomed to European grapes. The intent of the cross was to generate a hybrid vine that was resistant to phylloxera but produced wine that did not taste like the American grape. The hybrids tend not to be especially resistant to phylloxera, although they are much hardier with respect to climate and other vine diseases. The new hybrid varieties[ which? ] have never gained the popularity of the traditional ones.[ citation needed ] In the EU they are generally banned or at least strongly discouraged from use in quality wine, although they are still in widespread use in much of North America, such as Missouri, Ontario, and upstate New York.[ citation needed ]

Grafting with resistant rootstock

A grape leaf showing the galls that are formed during a phylloxera infestation Grape leaf showing galls from Phylloxera.jpg
A grape leaf showing the galls that are formed during a phylloxera infestation

Use of a resistant, or tolerant, rootstock, developed by Charles Valentine Riley in collaboration with J. E. Planchon and promoted by T. V. Munson, involved grafting a Vitis vinifera scion onto the roots of a resistant Vitis aestivalis or other American native species. This is the preferred method today, because the rootstock does not interfere with the development of the wine grapes (more technically, the genes responsible for the grapes are not in the rootstock but in the scion), and it furthermore allows the customization of the rootstock to soil and weather conditions, as well as desired vigor.

Not all rootstocks are equally resistant. Between the 1960s and the 1980s in California, many growers used a rootstock called AxR1. Even though it had already failed in many parts of the world by the early twentieth century, it was thought to be resistant by growers in California. Although phylloxera initially did not feed heavily on AxR1 roots, within twenty years, mutation and selective pressures within the phylloxera population began to overcome this rootstock, resulting in the eventual failure of most vineyards planted on AxR1. The replanting of afflicted vineyards continues today.

Many have suggested that this failure was predictable, as one parent of AxR1 is in fact a susceptible V. vinifera cultivar. But the transmission of phylloxera tolerance is more complex, as is demonstrated by the continued success of 41B, an F1 hybrid of Vitis berlandieri and Vitis vinifera . Modern phylloxera infestation also occurs when wineries are in need of fruit immediately, and choose to plant ungrafted vines rather than wait for grafted vines to be available.

Roots that have been damaged by phylloxera Nodositaet2.jpg
Roots that have been damaged by phylloxera

The use of resistant American rootstock to guard against phylloxera also brought about a debate that remains unsettled to this day: whether self-rooted vines produce better wine than those that are grafted. Of course, the argument is essentially irrelevant wherever phylloxera exists. Had American rootstock not been available and used, there would be no V. vinifera wine industry in Europe or most places other than Chile, Washington State, and most of Australia. Cyprus was spared by the phylloxera plague, and thus its wine stock has not been grafted for phylloxera resistant purposes.

Aftermath

A grafted vine with the scion (grape variety) visible as the darker wood above the graft union and the rootstock variety below Vine grafting.jpg
A grafted vine with the scion (grape variety) visible as the darker wood above the graft union and the rootstock variety below

The only European grapes that are natively resistant to phylloxera are the Assyrtiko grape which grows on the volcanic island of Santorini, Greece, although it is not clear whether the resistance is due to the rootstock itself or the volcanic ash on which it grows; and the Juan Garcia grape variety, autochthonous to the medieval village of Fermoselle in Spain. The Juan Garcia variety remained—untouched by phylloxera—sheltered on the vineyards planted on the man-made land terraces along the mountainous skirts on the gigantic and steep Duero Arribes / Douro River Canyon, where the microclimatic conditions discourage the growth of phylloxera.

To escape the threat of phylloxera, wines have been produced since 1979 on the sandy beaches of Provence's Bouches-du-Rhône, which extends from the coastline of the Gard region to the waterfront village of Saintes Maries de la Mer. The sand, sun and wind in this area has been a major deterrent to phylloxera. The wine produced here is called "Vins des Sables" or "wines of the sands". [7] In the same department, where the canal irrigation system built by the Romans still partly persists to this day, winter flooding is also practiced where possible, for instance south of the city of Tarascon. Flooding the vineyards for 50 days kills all the nymphs that overwinter in the roots or the bark at the bottom of the plant. [8]

Some regions were so blighted by phylloxera that they never recovered, and instead the producers switched crops entirely. The island of Mallorca is one example, where almonds now substitute for vines.[ citation needed ]

Vines that survived phylloxera

A collection of vines with grafted rootstocks Mao do edgar.jpg
A collection of vines with grafted rootstocks

According to wine critic and author Kerin O'Keefe, thanks to tiny parcels of vineyards throughout Europe which were inexplicably unscathed, some vineyards still exist as they were before the phylloxera devastation. [9]

So far, most Chilean wine has remained phylloxera free. It is isolated from the rest of the world by the Atacama Desert to the north, the Pacific Ocean to the west, and the Andes Mountains to the east. Phylloxera has also never been found in several wine-growing regions of Australia, including Tasmania, Western Australia and South Australia. [10] Australia has strong internal biosecurity controls to minimise the risk of phylloxera spreading beyond 'Phylloxera Infested Zones' in parts of Victoria and New South Wales. [11] [12] The Riesling of the Mosel region has also remained untouched by phylloxera; the parasite is unable to survive in the slate soil. [13] [14]

Until 2005, three tiny parcels of ungrafted Pinot noir that escaped phylloxera were used to produce Bollinger Vieilles Vignes Françaises, one of the rarest and most expensive Champagnes available. [9] In 2004, one of the parcels, Croix Rouge in Bouzy, died from phylloxera and was replanted with grafted rootstock. [15]

A rare vintage port is made from ungrafted vines grown on a small parcel, called Nacional, in the heart of the Quinta do Noval. It is unknown why this plot survived. [9]

Another vineyard unaffected by the phylloxera is the Lisini estate in Montalcino in Italy, a half-hectare vineyard of Sangiovese with vines dating back to the mid-1800s. Since 1985, the winery has produced a few bottles of Prefillossero (Italian for "before the phylloxera"). The wine has a following, including Italian wine critic Luigi Veronelli who inscribed on a bottle of the 1987 at the winery that drinking Prefillossero was like listening to ‘the earth singing to the sky’. [9]

Jumilla in southeastern Spain is an important area of ungrafted vineyards, mainly from Monastrell grapes. Those vineyards, however, are not immune to the insect, which is slowly advancing and destroying the Pie Franco vineyard of the Casa Castillo estate, planted in 1942, i.e., when phylloxera had already been in the region for five decades.

Large swaths of vineyards on the slopes of Sicily's volcano Mount Etna also remain free of phylloxera. Some vines are more than one-hundred-fifty years old, predating the phylloxera infestation in Sicily (1879–1880). Part of the reason for this is the high concentration of silica sand and very low (less than 3%) concentration of clay in the volcanic soils. In this environment (> 400m AMSL), the surface water from heavy bouts of rain seals the soil so perfectly that it drowns phylloxera before they are able to thrive. [16]

Bien Nacido Vineyard in Santa Maria Valley AVA of Santa Barbara, CA is a phylloxera-free vineyard. Despite being planted on its own roots, with UC Davis virus-free clones, the vineyard has never been affected by phylloxera. The high percentage of sand in the soil creates a mostly uninhabitable substrate for phylloxera. While Bien Nacido has not been affected, there is a potential, as all of the vines are true Vitis vinifera without scions or grafting. Many of the old vines were planted in 1973 and fall within the blocks G, N, Q and W. The wines of Bien Nacido Estate have a high percentage of these ungrafted and phylloxera-free vines within the cuvée.

Colares vineyards, native to the Portuguese region of Sintra are grown on 3–4 metres of sand, and are therefore unaffected by Phylloxera.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vineyard</span> Plantation of grape-bearing vines

A vineyard is a plantation of grape-bearing vines, grown mainly for winemaking, but also raisins, table grapes, and non-alcoholic grape juice. The science, practice and study of vineyard production is known as viticulture. Vineyards are often characterised by their terroir, a French term loosely translating as "a sense of place" that refers to the specific geographical and geological characteristics of grapevine plantations, which may be imparted to the wine itself.

<i>Vitis vinifera</i> Species of flowering plant in the grape vine family Vitaceae

Vitis vinifera, the common grape vine, is a species of flowering plant, native to the Mediterranean region, Central Europe, and southwestern Asia, from Morocco and Portugal north to southern Germany and east to northern Iran. There are currently between 5,000 and 10,000 varieties of Vitis vinifera grapes though only a few are of commercial significance for wine and table grape production.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chlorosis</span> Medical condition in plants

In botany, chlorosis is a condition in which leaves produce insufficient chlorophyll. As chlorophyll is responsible for the green color of leaves, chlorotic leaves are pale, yellow, or yellow-white. The affected plant has little or no ability to manufacture carbohydrates through photosynthesis and may die unless the cause of its chlorophyll insufficiency is treated and this may lead to a plant disease called rusts, although some chlorotic plants, such as the albino Arabidopsis thaliana mutant ppi2, are viable if supplied with exogenous sucrose.

<i>Vitis labrusca</i> Species of grapevine

Vitis labrusca, the fox grape, is a species of grapevines belonging to the Vitis genus in the flowering plant family Vitaceae. The vines are native to eastern North America and are the source of many grape cultivars, including Catawba, Concord, Delaware, Isabella, Niagara, and many hybrid grape varieties such as Agawam, Alexander and Onaka. Among the characteristics of this vine species in contrast to the European wine grape Vitis vinifera are its "slip-skin" that allows the skin of the grape berries to easily slip off when squeezed, instead of crushing the pulp, and the presence of tendrils on every node of the cane. Another contrast with European vinifera is the characteristic "foxy" musk of V. labrusca, best known to most people through the Concord grape. This musk is not related to the mammalian fox, but rather to the strong, earthy aromas characteristic of the grapes that were known by early European-American settlers in the New World. The term "foxy" became a sort of catchall for the wine tasting descriptors used for these American wines that were distinct from the familiar flavors of the European viniferous wines.

<i>Vitis riparia</i> Species of grapevine

Vitis riparia Michx, with common names riverbank grape or frost grape, is a vine indigenous to North America. As a climbing or trailing vine, it is widely distributed across central and eastern Canada and the central and northeastern parts of the United States, from Quebec to Texas, and eastern Montana to Nova Scotia. There are reports of isolated populations in the northwestern USA, but these are probably naturalized. It is long-lived and capable of reaching into the upper canopy of the tallest trees. It produces dark fruit that are appealing to both birds and people, and has been used extensively in commercial viticulture as grafted rootstock and in hybrid grape breeding programs.

A rootstock is part of a plant, often an underground part, from which new above-ground growth can be produced. It could also be described as a stem with a well developed root system, to which a bud from another plant is grafted. It can refer to a rhizome or underground stem. In grafting, it refers to a plant, sometimes just a stump, which already has an established, healthy root system, onto which a cutting or a bud from another plant is grafted. In some cases, such as vines of grapes and other berries, cuttings may be used for rootstocks, the roots being established in nursery conditions before planting them out. The plant part grafted onto the rootstock is usually called the scion. The scion is the plant that has the properties that propagator desires above ground, including the photosynthetic activity and the fruit or decorative properties. The rootstock is selected for its interaction with the soil, providing the roots and the stem to support the new plant, obtaining the necessary soil water and minerals, and resisting the relevant pests and diseases. After a few weeks, the tissues of the two parts will have grown together, eventually forming a single plant. After some years, it may be difficult to detect the site of the graft although the product always contains the components of two genetically different plants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hybrid grape</span> Variety of grape

Hybrid grapes are grape varieties that are the product of a crossing of two or more Vitis species. This is in contrast to crossings between grape varieties of the same species, typically Vitis vinifera, the European grapevine. Hybrid grapes are also referred to as inter-species crossings or "Modern Varieties." Due to their often excellent tolerance to powdery mildew, other fungal diseases, nematodes, and phylloxera, hybrid varieties have, to some extent, become a renewed focus for European breeding programs. The recently developed varieties are examples of newer hybrid grape varieties for European viticulturalists. Several North American breeding programs, such as those at Cornell and the University of Minnesota, focus exclusively on hybrid grapes, with active and successful programs, having created hundreds if not thousands of new varieties.

Bouchalès or Grapput is a red French wine grape variety that is grown primarily in Bordeaux and Southwest France wine appellations. Plantings have declined in recent years as the vine has shown high sensitivity to downy mildew and black rot.

Couderc noir is a red wine hybrid grape that was formerly grown primarily in the South West France wine region and around the Gard département in the Languedoc-Roussillon region. The vine produces high yields and ripens late, creating a wine that is deeply colored with a distinct, earthy flavor. Couderc noir is normally used for mass commercial and table wines.

<i>Vitis</i> Genus flowering plants in the grape family Vitaceae

Vitis (grapevine) is a genus of 81 accepted species of vining plants in the flowering plant family Vitaceae. The genus consists of species predominantly from the Northern Hemisphere. It is economically important as the source of grapes, both for direct consumption of the fruit and for fermentation to produce wine. The study and cultivation of grapevines is called viticulture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great French Wine Blight</span> Mid-19th century blight by aphids

The Great French Wine Blight was a severe blight of the mid-19th century that destroyed many of the vineyards in France and laid waste to the wine industry. It was caused by an aphid that originated in North America and was carried across the Atlantic in the late 1850s. The actual genus of the aphid is still debated, although it is largely considered to have been a species of Daktulosphaira vitifoliae, commonly known as grape phylloxera. While France is considered to have been worst affected, the blight also did a great deal of damage to vineyards in other European countries.

Château Pavie-Macquin is a Bordeaux wine from the appellation Saint-Émilion, ranked Premier grand cru classé B in the Classification of Saint-Émilion wine. The winery is one of three Pavie estates, along with Château Pavie and Château Pavie-Decesse, located in the Right Bank of France’s Bordeaux wine region in the commune of Saint-Émilion in the department Gironde. Having risen in esteem in the 1990s, it was promoted to Premier Grand Cru Classé in 2006.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Finger Lakes AVA</span>

The Finger Lakes AVA is an American Viticultural Area located in Upstate New York, south of Lake Ontario. It was established in 1982 and encompasses the eleven Finger Lakes, but the area around Canandaigua, Keuka, Seneca, and Cayuga Lakes contain the vast majority of vineyard plantings in the AVA. Cayuga and Seneca Lakes each have their own American Viticultural Areas completely contained within the Finger Lakes AVA. The Finger Lakes AVA includes 11,000 acres (4,452 ha) of vineyards and is the largest wine-producing region in New York State.

<i>Vitis berlandieri</i> Species of grapevine

Vitis berlandieri is a species of grape native to the southern North America, primarily Texas, New Mexico and Arkansas.

Colares is a Portuguese wine region centred on the Colares parish in the municipality of Sintra. The region has Portugal's highest wine classification of Denominação de Origem Controlada (DOC). Located along the southwestern Atlantic coast, vineyards in the area are protected from the strong ocean winds by sandy dunes. In the 1940s, vineyards covered about 2,500 acres but have since been reduced by suburbanization to 50 acres. Between 1934 and 1994, only the local co-op could use the Colares appellation. Because grapevines there are grown directly in the sand, and phylloxera aphids cannot live on sand, Colares vineyards are some of the only European vines that are not grafted upon American rootstocks. The ungrafted Ramisco vines of the Colares region are some of the oldest in Portugal. The region is known for its deep colored, full bodied red wines that are high in astringent tannins.

This glossary of viticultural terms list some of terms and definitions involved in growing grapes for use in winemaking.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vine training</span> Horticultural technique

The use of vine training systems in viticulture is aimed primarily to assist in canopy management with finding the balance in enough foliage to facilitate photosynthesis without excessive shading that could impede grape ripening or promote grape diseases. Additional benefits of utilizing particular training systems could be to control potential yields and to facilitate mechanization of certain vineyard tasks such as pruning, irrigation, applying pesticide or fertilizing sprays as well as harvesting the grapes.

Black Spanish is a variation of grape that was originally assumed to be a seedling of an American hybrid grape which resulted from the crossing of the American Vitis aestivalis species with that of an unknown Vitis vinifera. The vinifera is suspected to have been the pollen donor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Propagation of grapevines</span>

The propagation of grapevines is an important consideration in commercial viticulture and winemaking. Grapevines, most of which belong to the Vitis vinifera family, produce one crop of fruit each growing season with a limited life span for individual vines. While some centenarian old vine examples of grape varieties exist, most grapevines are between the ages of 10 and 30 years. As vineyard owners seek to replant their vines, a number of techniques are available which may include planting a new cutting that has been selected by either clonal or mass (massal) selection. Vines can also be propagated by grafting a new plant vine upon existing rootstock or by layering one of the canes of an existing vine into the ground next to the vine and severing the connection when the new vine develops its own root system.

Blanc du Bois is an American hybrid grape that was created in 1968 by John A. Mortensen at the University of Florida’s Central Florida Research and Education Center in Leesburg, Florida. Mortensen created this variety by crossing various Vitis vinifera grape varieties such as Golden Muscat with native Florida varieties. When released in 1987, Blanc du Bois became another grape variety in the small but growing number of vine types that can both produce marketable wine on their own yet can withstand Pierce's Disease, a bacterial infection that destroys nearly all vinifera vinestocks imported into the southern United States.

References

  1. ↑ Shimer. 1866. The Prairie Farmer 18:36
  2. 1 2 3 Wine & Spirits Education Trust "Wine and Spirits: Understanding Wine Quality" pgs 2–5, Second Revised Edition (2012), London, ISBN   9781905819157
  3. ↑ Lawo, Nora C.; Weingart, Georg J.F.; Schuhmacher, Rainer; Forneck, Astrid (September 2011). "The volatile metabolome of grapevine roots: First insights into the metabolic response upon phylloxera attack". Plant Physiology and Biochemistry. 49 (9): 1059–1063. doi:10.1016/j.plaphy.2011.06.008. PMC   3268251 . PMID   21764593.
  4. ↑ McLeod, Murdick J.; Williams, Roger N. "Grape Phylloxera". Archived from the original on 2012-07-16.
  5. ↑ Ayuda, María-Isabel; Ferrer-Pérez, Hugo; Pinilla, Vicente (2019). "A leader in an emerging new international market: the determinants of French wine exports, 1848–1938". The Economic History Review. 73 (3): 703–729. doi:10.1111/ehr.12878. ISSN   1468-0289. S2CID   199360879.
  6. 1 2 winepros.com.au The Oxford Companion to Wine. "phylloxera". Archived from the original on 2008-07-27.
  7. ↑ "Wines of the Sand". Feature Article. Novus Vinum. 2006-09-17. Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-11-05.
  8. ↑ G. Gale. "Saving the vine from phylloxera: a never-ending battle" (PDF). University of Missouri-Kansas City. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2010-07-12. Retrieved 2012-03-29.
  9. 1 2 3 4 O'Keefe, Kerin (October 2005). "The great escape". Decanter . Archived from the original on 2018-02-12. Retrieved 2018-02-12.
  10. ↑ "Phylloxera". Vinehealth Australia. Archived from the original on 4 June 2016. Retrieved 3 May 2016.
  11. ↑ Department of Jobs, Precincts and Regions (2021-12-08). "Tackling phylloxera - Agriculture". Agriculture Victoria. Retrieved 2022-10-27.
  12. ↑ "Phylloxera". www.dpi.nsw.gov.au. 2018. Retrieved 2022-10-27.
  13. ↑ Pigott, Stuart (29 January 1997). "The Mosel River Renaissance". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 2017-05-25. Retrieved 3 May 2016.
  14. ↑ Salcito, Jordan (26 April 2014). "Germany's Wine Revolution Is Just Getting Started". The Daily Beast. Archived from the original on 20 May 2016. Retrieved 3 May 2016.
  15. ↑ "Bollinger Vieilles Vignes Françaises 1969–2005". The World of Fine Wine. 13 January 2015. Archived from the original on 2017-04-07. Retrieved 2017-04-06.
  16. ↑ Campbell, Christy. "Phylloxera: How Wine Was Saved For the World." Harper Perennial, 2004, p. 129–130

Further reading

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