Plum Island Animal Disease Center

Last updated
Plum Island Animal Disease Center
Plum Island Animal Disease Center logo.jpg
PIADC logo
Plum Island Animal Disease Center.jpg
Buildings 100 and 101 at the Plum Island Animal Disease Center
Established1954
Budget $16.5 million
Field of research
Foreign animal diseases
Director Larry Barrett
Location Plum Island, New York, U.S.
41°10′44″N72°12′20″W / 41.178889°N 72.205556°W / 41.178889; -72.205556
11957
Operating agency
United States Department of Homeland Security
Website DHS site
Map
Location map Long Island.png
Red pog.svg
Location in Long Island

Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC) is a United States federal research facility dedicated to the study of foreign animal diseases of livestock. It is a national laboratory of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Directorate for Science and Technology (S&T), and operates as a partnership with the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). [1] The facility's director is Larry Barrett. [2]

Contents

Isolated on Plum Island off the eastern tip of Long Island, New York, the center has been tasked with protecting America's livestock from animal diseases since 1954. It is the only facility in the country authorized to work with live foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) samples, and specializes in the study of FMD and African swine fever. [3] At the height of the Cold War, study of biological weapons for use against livestock was conducted at the site, ending in 1969 when President Nixon declared an end to the United States' offensive bioweapons program. Today the facility maintains laboratories up to biosafety level 3, and has remained controversial as a result of its high-risk work and proximity to the New York metropolitan area.

The facility is slated for closure in 2024[ citation needed ], with work moving to the National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility under construction in Manhattan, Kansas.

Location

The center is located on Plum Island near the northeast coast of Long Island in New York state. During the Spanish–American War, the island was purchased by the government for the construction of Fort Terry, which was later deactivated after World War II and then reactivated in 1952 for the Army Chemical Corps. The center comprises 70 buildings (many of them dilapidated) on 840 acres (3.4 km2). [4] [5] Plum Island has its own fire department, power plant, water treatment plant, and security. [4] [5] Any wild mammal seen on the island is killed to prevent the possible transmission of foot-and-mouth disease. [4] However, as Plum Island was named an important bird area by the New York Audubon Society, it has attracted different birds. Plum Island has placed osprey nests and bluebird boxes throughout the island. As of 2008, new kestrel houses were planned to be added. [6]

History

In response to disease outbreaks in Mexico and Canada in 1954, the US Army gave the island to the Agriculture Department to establish a research center dedicated to the study of foot-and-mouth disease in cattle. [4]

The island was opened to news media for the first time in 1992. [5] In 1995, the Department of Agriculture was issued a $111,000 fine for storing hazardous chemicals on the island. [5]

Local Long Island activists prevented the center from expanding to include diseases that affect humans in 2000, which would require a Biosafety Level 4 designation; in 2002, the US Congress again considered the plan. [4]

The Wall Street Journal reported in January 2002 that many scientists and government officials wanted the lab to close, believing that the threat of foot-and-mouth disease was so remote that the center did not merit its $16.5 million annual budget. [4] In 2002, the Plum Island Animal Disease Center was transferred from the United States Department of Agriculture to the United States Department of Homeland Security.[ citation needed ]

In 2003, a whistleblower who voiced concerns about safety at the facility was fired by the contractor he worked for. He had discussed his concerns with aides to Senator Hillary Clinton. [7] A National Labor Relations Board judge found that the contractor, North Fork Services, had discriminated against the whistleblower. [7]

In 2020, the Department of Homeland Security plan to put the island up for auction after the conclusion of laboratory activities in 2023 was blocked by Congress. As part of ongoing COVID-19 pandemic relief legislation, Senator Chuck Schumer of New York negotiated a provision in the CARES Act that protects the island from being sold. Environmentalists had opposed the sale of the island because of its extensive wildlife habitats. After the final draft of the legislation was announced, Schumer said “It would have been a grave mistake to sell and develop Plum Island's 840-acres of habitat, which is home to many endangered species, that's why preventing the unnecessary sale requirement was a top priority of these negotiations." [8]

Replacement facility

The NBAF on the campus of Kansas State University in Manhattan, Kansas (2020) NBAF Front.jpg
The NBAF on the campus of Kansas State University in Manhattan, Kansas (2020)

On September 11, 2005, DHS announced that the Plum Island Animal Disease Research Center will be replaced by a new federal facility. The location of the new high-security animal disease lab, called the National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility (NBAF), is being built in Manhattan, Kansas. [9] [10]

The plan was controversial almost immediately when it was unveiled, following a cost assessment by DHS and prime contractor Booz Allen Hamilton in which the agency determined that the cost of maintaining or moving the facility would be comparable. [10]

Those conclusions, as well as claims about the safety of the facility proposed were called into question several times, first by a 2007 Government Accountability Office study, which stated that claims by DHS that the work on foot and mouth disease performed on Plum Island can be performed "as safely on the mainland" is "not supported" by evidence. [11]

In 2012, DHS completed a risk assessment of the Kansas site that called the proposed facility "safe and secure". [12] In response, a 2012 review of the risk assessment by the National Research Council called it "seriously flawed". [13]

Despite controversy, the new facility is nearing completion, and transfer of laboratory contents from Plum Island to NBAF is to be complete by 2023. The USDA has named former director of Canada's Centers for Animal Disease Alfonso Clavijo as the director of the new facility. [14]

Activities

PIADC's mission can be grouped into three main categories: diagnosis, research, and education.[ citation needed ]

Since 1971, PIADC has been educating veterinarians in foreign animal diseases. The center hosts several Foreign Animal Disease Diagnostic schools each year to train federal and state veterinarians and laboratory diagnostic staff, military veterinarians and veterinary school faculty.[ citation needed ]

At PIADC, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) work together; DHS' Targeted Advanced Development unit partners with USDA, academia and industry scientists to deliver vaccines and antivirals to the USDA for licensure and inclusion in the USDA National Veterinary Vaccine Stockpile.[ citation needed ]

USDA Agricultural Research Service (ARS) performs basic and applied research to better formulate countermeasures against foreign animal diseases, including strategies for prevention, control and recovery. ARS focuses on developing faster-acting vaccines and antivirals to be used during outbreaks to limit or stop transmission. Antivirals prevent infection while vaccine immunity develops. The principal diseases studied are foot-and-mouth disease, classical swine fever, and vesicular stomatitis virus.[ citation needed ]

USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Services (APHIS) operates the Foreign Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, an internationally recognized[ citation needed ] facility performing diagnostic testing of samples collected from U.S. livestock. APHIS also tests animals and animal products being imported into the U.S. APHIS maintains the North American Foot-and-Mouth Disease Vaccine Bank at PIADC and hosts the Foreign Animal Disease Diagnosticians training program, offering several classes per year to train veterinarians to recognize foreign animal diseases.[ citation needed ]

Research on biological weapons at PIADC ceased when the United States Biological Warfare program was ended in 1969 by President Richard Nixon. [15]

Biological weapons research

The original anti-animal biological weapons mission was "to establish and pursue a program of research and development of certain anti-animal (BW) agents". [16] By August 1954 animals occupied holding areas at Plum Island and research was ongoing within Building 257. [17] The USDA facility, known as the Plum Island Animal Disease Center, continued work on biological warfare research until the U.S. program was ended by Richard Nixon in 1969. [15] The bio-weapons research at Building 257 and Fort Terry was shrouded in aura of mystery and secrecy. [18] [19] The existence of biological warfare experiments on Plum Island during the Cold War era was denied for decades by the U.S. government. In 1993 Newsday unearthed documents proving otherwise and in 1994, Russian scientists inspected the Plum Island research facility to verify that these experiments had indeed ended. [19]

Diseases studied and outbreaks

As a diagnostic facility, PIADC scientists study more than 40 foreign animal diseases, including classical swine fever and African swine fever. [4] [10] PIADC runs about 30,000 diagnostic tests each year. PIADC operates Biosafety Level 3 Agriculture (BSL-3Ag), BSL-3 and BSL-2 laboratory facilities. The facility's research program includes developing diagnostic tools and biologicals for foot-and-mouth disease and other diseases of livestock. [4]

Because federal law stipulates that live foot-and-mouth disease virus cannot be studied on the mainland, PIADC is unique in that it is currently the only laboratory in the U.S. equipped with research facilities that permit the study of foot-and-mouth disease. [20]

Foot-and-mouth disease is extremely contagious among cloven-hooved animals, and people who have come in contact with it can carry it to animals. [7] Accidental outbreaks of the virus have caused catastrophic livestock and economic losses in many countries throughout the world.

Foot-and-mouth disease was eradicated from the U.S. in 1929 (with the exception of the stocks within the Plum Island center) [4] but is currently endemic to many parts of the world.

In 2012, two researchers at the facility, John Neilan and Michael Puckette, developed the first Foot-and-mouth disease vaccine which does not require live virus cultures in the manufacturing process, allowing vaccine development to occur safely and legally on U.S. mainland for the first time. [21]

Laboratory accidents

Plum Island has experienced outbreaks of its own, including one in 1978 in which foot-and-mouth disease was released to animals outside the center, and two incidents in 2004 in which the disease was released within the center. [7] [10]

In response to the two 2004 incidents, New York Senator Hillary Clinton and Congressman Tim Bishop wrote a letter to the Department of Homeland Security regarding their concerns about the center's safety: "We urge you to immediately investigate these alarming breaches at the highest levels, and to keep us apprised of all developments." [7]

Historic buildings

Building 257

Building No. 257 at Fort Terry, on Plum Island near Long Island, New York, was completed around 1911. [22] The original purpose of the building was to store weapons, such as mines, and the structure was designated the Combined Torpedo Storehouse and Cable Tanks building. [22] Fort Terry went through a period of activations and deactivations through World War II until the U.S. Army Chemical Corps took over the facility in 1952 for use in anti-animal biological warfare (BW) research. [15] The Chemical Corps planned a laboratory for the fort, to be housed in Building 257. [22] The conversion of Fort Terry to a BW facility required the remodeling of Building 257 and other structures. [15]

As work neared completion on the lab and other facilities in the spring of 1954 the mission of Fort Terry changed. [23] Construction was completed on the facilities on May 26, 1954, but the post was transferred to the USDA before the military could utilize the new laboratory facilities. [22] Fort Terry was officially transferred to the USDA on July 1, 1954, at the time scientists from the Bureau of Animal Industry were already working in Building 257. [22] Construction on a new lab facility, known as Building 101, also began about this time but was not completed until September 1956. [22]

A modernization program in 1977 aimed to update both Building 257 and Building 101, but the program was canceled in 1979 because of construction contract irregularities. [22] Plum Island facilities were essentially unchanged until a new modernization began in 1990. [22] Two-thirds of the laboratory facilities inside Building 101 were renovated and operations in Building 257 were consolidated into Building 101. [22] According to a United States Department of Homeland Security spokesperson in 2004, Building 257 was closed in 1995 and poses no health hazard. [18]

Building 101

The structure is a 164,000-square-foot (15,200 m2) T-shaped white building. [17] It is situated on Plum Island's northwest plateau on a 10-acre (40,000 m2) site where it is buttressed by a steep cliff which leads into the ocean. [17] To the south-west of the building's site is the old Plum Island Lighthouse. [17]

Construction on Plum Island's new laboratory Building 101 began around July 1, 1954, around the same time that the Army's anti-animal bio-warfare (BW) facilities at Fort Terry were transferred to the U.S. Department of Agriculture. [24] Following the transfer, the facilities on Plum Island became known as the Plum Island Animal Disease Center. [24] The USDA's $7.7. million [17] Building 101 laboratory facility was dedicated on September 26, 1956. [24] Prior to the building's opening the area around it was sprayed with chemicals to deter insect or animal life from approaching the facility. [17] Upon its opening a variety of tests using pathogens and vectors were conducted on animals in the building. [17] Research on biological weapons at PIADC did not cease until the entire program was canceled in 1969 by Richard Nixon. [15]

A modernization program in 1977 aimed to update both Building 101 and another laboratory, Building 257, but the program was canceled in 1979 because of construction contract irregularities. [24] PIADC facilities were essentially unchanged until a new modernization began in 1990. [24] Two-thirds of the laboratory facilities inside Building 101 were renovated and operations from Building 257 were consolidated into Building 101. [24] Building 257 was closed, and a major expansion, known as Building 100, was completed on Building 101 in 1995. [24] According to the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), Building 257 currently poses no health hazard. [18]

Controversy

Conspiracy theories

Prolific but unfounded conspiracy theories have alleged that Lyme disease, first documented in nearby Lyme, Connecticut, was a biological weapon that originated in the Plum Island laboratory. [25] A discredited 2004 book entitled Lab 257: The Disturbing Story of the Government's Secret Plum Island Germ Laboratory fueled the conspiracy theories. [18] [26] Archived specimens show that Lyme disease was endemic well before the establishment of Plum Island laboratory. [25] Additionally, Lyme disease was never a topic of research at Plum Island, according to the US Department of Homeland Security and Department of Agriculture. [3] [18]

On July 12, 2008, a creature dubbed the Montauk Monster washed ashore at Ditch Plains Beach near the business district of Montauk, New York. The creature, a quadruped of indeterminate size, was dead when discovered, and was assumed by some to have come from Plum Island as a result of the currents and proximity to the mainland. Palaeozoologist Darren Naish studied the photograph and concluded from visible dentition and the front paws that the creature may have been a raccoon. [27] This was also the opinion of Larry Penny, the East Hampton Natural Resources Director. [28]

Terrorism

When American educated Pakistani neuroscientist Aafia Siddiqui, a suspected al-Qaeda member, was captured in Afghanistan in July 2008, she had in her handbag handwritten notes referring to a "mass casualty attack" that listed various U.S. locations, including the Plum Island Animal Disease Center. [29] In February 2010, she was convicted of assault with a deadly weapon and attempting to kill U.S. servicemembers and FBI agents who sought to interrogate her.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biosafety</span> Prevention of large-scale loss of biological integrity

Biosafety is the prevention of large-scale loss of biological integrity, focusing both on ecology and human health. These prevention mechanisms include the conduction of regular reviews of biosafety in laboratory settings, as well as strict guidelines to follow. Biosafety is used to protect from harmful incidents. Many laboratories handling biohazards employ an ongoing risk management assessment and enforcement process for biosafety. Failures to follow such protocols can lead to increased risk of exposure to biohazards or pathogens. Human error and poor technique contribute to unnecessary exposure and compromise the best safeguards set into place for protection.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biosafety level</span> Set of biocontainment precautions

A biosafety level (BSL), or pathogen/protection level, is a set of biocontainment precautions required to isolate dangerous biological agents in an enclosed laboratory facility. The levels of containment range from the lowest biosafety level 1 (BSL-1) to the highest at level 4 (BSL-4). In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have specified these levels in a publication referred to as BMBL. In the European Union, the same biosafety levels are defined in a directive. In Canada the four levels are known as Containment Levels. Facilities with these designations are also sometimes given as P1 through P4, as in the term P3 laboratory.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fort Detrick</span> Military base and biological laboratory in US

Fort Detrick is a United States Army Futures Command installation located in Frederick, Maryland. Fort Detrick was the center of the U.S. biological weapons program from 1943 to 1969. Since the discontinuation of that program, it has hosted most elements of the United States biological defense program.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plum Island (New York)</span> Island in New York, United States

Plum Island is an island in the town of Southold in Suffolk County, New York. The island is situated in Gardiners Bay, east of Orient Point, off the eastern end of the North Fork coast of Long Island. It is about 3 miles (4.8 km) long and 1 mile (1.6 km) wide at its widest point.

The Pirbright Institute is a research institute in Surrey, England, dedicated to the study of infectious diseases of farm animals. It forms part of the UK government's Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC). The institute employs scientists, vets, PhD students, and operations staff.

The National Microbiology Laboratory (NML) is part of the Public Health Agency of Canada (PHAC), the agency of the Government of Canada that is responsible for public health, health emergency preparedness and response, and infectious and chronic disease control and prevention.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biocontainment</span> Physical containment of pathogenic organisms or agents in microbiology laboratories

One use of the concept of biocontainment is related to laboratory biosafety and pertains to microbiology laboratories in which the physical containment of pathogenic organisms or agents is required, usually by isolation in environmentally and biologically secure cabinets or rooms, to prevent accidental infection of workers or release into the surrounding community during scientific research.

Fort Terry was a coastal fortification on Plum Island, a small island just off Orient Point, New York, United States. This strategic position afforded it a commanding view over the Atlantic entrance to the commercially vital Long Island Sound. It was established in 1897 and used intermittently through the end of World War II. In 1952, it became a military animal and biological warfare (BW) research facility, moving to civilian control in 1954 as the Plum Island Animal Disease Center. Despite the new civilian control, the biological warfare mission continued until 1969, when the US officially ended offensive BW research. The island is now being considered for sale or conversion to a wildlife refuge. Fort Terry was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2021.

The National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC) is a government biodefense research laboratory created by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and located at the sprawling biodefense campus at Fort Detrick in Frederick, MD, USA. The NBACC is the principal U.S. biodefense research institution engaged in laboratory-based threat assessment and bioforensics. NBACC is an important part of the National Interagency Biodefense Campus (NIBC) also located at Fort Detrick for the US Army, National Institutes of Health and the US Department of Agriculture.

Erich Traub was a German veterinarian, scientist and virologist who specialized in foot-and-mouth disease, Rinderpest and Newcastle disease. Traub was a member of the National Socialist Motor Corps (NSKK), a Nazi motorist corps, from 1938 to 1942. He worked directly for Heinrich Himmler, head of the Schutzstaffel (SS), as the lab chief of the Nazis' leading bio-weapons facility on Riems Island.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">DHS Science and Technology Directorate</span> U.S. Dept. of Homeland Security Research and Development units

The Science and Technology Directorate (S&T) is a component within the United States Department of Homeland Security. DHS-S&T serves as the research and development arm of the Department as it fulfills its national security mission.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility</span> American BSL-4 research facility

The National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility (NBAF) is a biosafety level 4 research laboratory in Manhattan, Kansas, operated by the United States Department of Agriculture. The facility opened in June 2023. The facility is designed to combat biological threats involving human, zoonotic, and foreign animal diseases. The NBAF replaced the aging Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC) on Plum Island, New York. The primary research tenants of the facility are the Agriculture Research Service (USDA-ARS) and Animal Plant Health Inspection Service, Veterinary Services (USDA-APHIS-VS). Construction on the 574,000-square-foot (53,300 m2) facility officially began in May 2015, and was scheduled to be completed by May 2021. The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, however, has delayed scheduled commissioning to October 2021, followed by further delays to Spring, and finally summer 2023. Operations will be fully transferred from the Plum Island facility by 2023. The facility employs between 250 and 350 people. The facility is a constituent member of the Biosafety Level 4 Zoonotic Laboratory Network, and is currently led by Alfonso Clavijo.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oregon PHL/DEQ Laboratories</span> Public health laboratory of Oregon, US

The Oregon PHL/DEQ Laboratories are the Oregon Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) and Oregon Department of Human Services (DHS) laboratories located in a single building in Hillsboro, Oregon, United States. DHS operates the Oregon State Public Health Laboratory (OSPHL), and the DEQ operates their Laboratory and Environmental Assessment Division at the site. The laboratories previously were located at Portland State University, moving to the new location near Cornelius Pass Road and the Sunset Highway in northeast Hillsboro in 2007.

Biosecurity in the United States is governed by the Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs, which is part of the US Department of State. It obtains guidance and advice on specific matters relating to biosecurity from various other government agencies.

The United States Biological Defense Program—in recent years also called the National Biodefense Strategy—refers to the collective effort by all levels of government, along with private enterprise and other stakeholders, in the United States to carry out biodefense activities.

The National Veterinary Services Laboratories (NVSL) provides laboratory services for the US Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS). It operates from Ames, Iowa and Plum Island Animal Disease Center at Plum Island (New York). The NVSL provides a wide variety of information and services, centered on diagnosis of domestic and foreign animal diseases, support of disease control and eradication programs, reagents for diagnostic testing, training, and laboratory certification.

Howard Lloyd Bachrach was an American scientist who made research contributions to the understanding of viruses such as foot-and-mouth disease and polio. Bachrach's work led to the first vaccination developed through genetic engineering techniques. He worked for the United States Department of Agriculture and was chief scientist at the Plum Island Animal Disease Center. Bachrach was a recipient of the National Medal of Science and was a member of the National Academy of Sciences.

The National Interagency Biodefense Campus is a facility in Frederick, MD at Fort Detrick. It hosts members of a scientific collaboration, the National Interagency Confederation for Biological Research.

A Foreign animal disease (FAD) is an animal disease or pest, whether terrestrial or aquatic, not known to exist in the United States or its territories. When these diseases can significantly affect human health or animal production and when there is significant economic cost for disease control and eradication efforts, they are considered a threat to the United States. Another term gaining preference to be used is Transboundary Animal Disease (TAD), which is defined as those epidemic diseases which are highly contagious or transmissible and have the potential for very rapid spread, irrespective of national borders, causing serious socio-economic and possibly public health consequences. An Emerging Animal Disease "may be defined as any terrestrial animal, aquatic animal, or zoonotic disease not yet known or characterized, or any known or characterized terrestrial animal or aquatic animal disease in the United States or its territories that changes or mutates in pathogenicity, communicability, or zoonotic potential to become a threat to terrestrial animals, aquatic animals, or humans."

References

  1. "PIADC Fact Sheet" (PDF). Department of Homeland Security .
  2. "Inside the mysterious Plum Island Animal Disease Center". NBC4 WCMH-TV. 2019-05-07. Retrieved 2021-02-09.
  3. 1 2 "Plum Island Animal Disease Center". Department of Homeland Security. 6 July 2009. Retrieved 10 August 2020.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "Bioterrorism Fears Revive Waning Interest In Agricultural Disease Lab on Plum Island". The Wall Street Journal. 2002-01-08. Retrieved 2008-05-17.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Miller, Judith (1999-09-22). "Long Island Lab May Do Studies Of Bioterrorism". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-05-18.
  6. "About Plum Island Animal Disease Center". Department of Homeland Security. 2008-12-28. Archived from the original on 2008-08-01. Retrieved 2008-08-04.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 Rather, John (2004-08-22). "Plum Island Reports Disease Outbreak". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-05-17.
  8. Bonfiglio, Briana (2020-12-22). "Congress Blocks Sale of Plum Island in Covid-19 Relief Bill". LI Press. Retrieved 2021-02-09.
  9. "DHS: DHS Issues Record of Decision on Proposed National Bio- and Agro-Defense Facility". Dhs.gov. Archived from the original on 2011-07-06. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Muller, Madison (8 September 2023). "A Mysterious Lab Is Shutting Down. It's the End of an Era for Biosecurity". Bloomberg News . Retrieved 20 September 2023.
  11. "Study spurs request to not phase out Plum Island". Newsday.com. 2009-07-31. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
  12. "DHS Issues Updated Site-Specific Risk Assessment For Proposed National Bio And Agro-Defense Facility (NBAF)". dhs.gov. 2 March 2012.
  13. "Officials press feds for NBAF". LJWorld.com.
  14. Avant, Sandra (October 1, 2019). "Alfonso Clavijo Named Director Of USDA National Bio And Agrio-Defense Facility : USDA ARS". USDA . Retrieved 20 September 2023.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 Cella, Alexandra. "An Overview of Plum Island: History, Research and Effects on Long Island", Long Island Historical Journal, Fall 2003/Spring 2004, Vol. 16, Nos. 1 and 2, pp. 176–181 (194–199 in PDF), accessed January 10, 2009.
  16. Wheelis, Mark, et al. Deadly Cultures: Biological Weapons Since 1945, (Google Books), Harvard University Press, 2006 pp. 225–228, ( ISBN   0674016998).
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Carroll, Michael C. Lab 257: The Disturbing Story of the Government's Secret Plum Island Germ Laboratory, (Google Books), HarperCollins, 2004, pp. 45–48, 60, ( ISBN   0060011416).
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 Dunn, Adam. "The mysterious lab off New York's shore", CNN.com , April 2, 2004, accessed January 10, 2009.
  19. 1 2 Lambert, Bruce. "Closely Guarded Secrets: Some Islands You Can't Get to Visit", The New York Times , May 17, 1998, accessed January 10, 2009.
  20. U.S. General Accounting Office. "High-Containment Biosafety Laboratories: DHS Lacks Evidence to Conclude That Foot-and-Mouth Disease Research Can Be Done Safely on the U.S. Mainland". GAO-08-821T. 22 May 2008. p. 1.
  21. "Snapshot: New Patent-Pending Process for FMD Vaccine". Department of Homeland Security. 2020-06-10. Retrieved 2021-02-09.
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "1669–2003: A Partial History of Plum Island Archived 2009-03-09 at the Wayback Machine ", United States Animal Health Association Newsletter, Vol. 30, No. 4, October 2003, pp. 5, 26, accessed January 10, 2009.
  23. Carroll, Michael C. Lab 257: The Disturbing Story of the Government's Secret Plum Island Germ Laboratory, (Google Books), HarperCollins, 2004, pp. 45–48, ( ISBN   0060011416).
  24. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "1669–2003: A Partial History of Plum Island Archived 2009-03-09 at the Wayback Machine ", United States Animal Health Association Newsletter, Vol. 30, No. 4, October 2003, pp. 5, 26, accessed January 10, 2009.
  25. 1 2 Telford, Sam (11 August 2019). "No, Lyme disease is not an escaped military bioweapon, despite what conspiracy theorists say". Washington Post. Retrieved 10 August 2020.
  26. Kirby, Reid. "Book Reviews Archived 2009-03-09 at the Wayback Machine ", Army Chemical Review, January–June 2005, accessed January 10, 2009.
  27. "What was the Montauk monster? : Tetrapod Zoology". Scienceblogs.com. 2008-08-04. Archived from the original on 2012-05-07. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
  28. "The Hound of Bonacville". Indyeastend.com – The Independent. July 23, 2008. Archived from the original on July 22, 2012. Retrieved June 8, 2009.
  29. Weiser, Benjamin (September 2, 2008). "Indictment Hints of Plan to Attack Landmarks". The New York Times . Retrieved April 25, 2015.
  30. Roberts, Les. The Poison Plum. Les Roberts. Archived from the original on 2007-12-13.

Further reading