SS Californian

Last updated

SS Californian
Californian.jpg
SS Californian on the morning after Titanic sank.
History
Civil Ensign of the United Kingdom.svg United Kingdom
NameSS Californian
Namesake State of California
OwnerLeyland Line Flag.png Leyland Line
Port of registryLiverpool, UK
Route Atlantic Ocean crossings
Builder Caledon Shipbuilding & Engineering Company, Dundee, Scotland
Cost£105,000(equivalent to about £14,400,000 in 2023) [1]
Yard number159 [1]
Launched26 November 1901
Acquired30 January 1902
Maiden voyage31 January 1902
In service1902–1915
Out of service9 November 1915
Identification
  • Official number: 115243
  • Code letters: TFLN
  • Radio call sign: MWL
FateSunk by German U-boats, 9 November 1915, 61 miles (98 km) southwest of Cape Matapan, Greece.
General characteristics
Type Cargo liner
Tonnage6,223 gross, 4,038 net
Length447 ft (136 m) LOA
Beam53 ft (16 m)
Draught30.5 ft
Decks6 (3 on superstructure [flying bridge, promenade deck and shelter deck] and 3 below deck)
Propulsion
Speed
  • 13 knots (service speed.)
  • 12 knots (speed estimated in sea trials.)
Boats & landing
craft carried		6 (4 lifeboats, 1 gig and 1 pinnace) with total capacity for 218 people.
Capacity47 passengers
Crew55 officers and crew

SS Californian was a British Leyland Line steamship. She is thought to be the only ship in sight of the Titanic , or at least her rockets, during that ship's sinking. [2] [3] The crew took no action to assist. The United States Senate inquiry and British Wreck Commissioner's inquiry into the sinking both concluded that the Californian could have saved many or all of the lives that were lost, had a prompt response been mounted to the Titanic 's distress rockets. [4] The U.S. Senate inquiry was particularly critical of the vessel's captain, Stanley Lord, calling his inaction during the disaster "reprehensible". [5]

Contents

Despite this criticism, no formal charges were ever brought against Lord and his crew for their inaction. Lord disputed the findings and spent the rest of his life trying to clear his name. In 1992, the UK Government's Marine Accident Investigation Branch re-examined the case and while condemning the inaction of the Californian and Captain Lord, also concluded that due to the limited time available, "the effect of Californian taking proper action would have been no more than to place on her the task actually carried out by RMS Carpathia, that is the rescue of those who escaped ... [no] reasonably probable action by Captain Lord could have led to a different outcome of the tragedy". [6] [7]

The Californian sunk on 9 November 1915, by the German submarines SM U-34 and U-35, in the Eastern Mediterranean during World War I while serving as a transport ship.

History

SS Californian arriving in port SS Californian arriving in port.jpg
SS Californian arriving in port

Californian was a steamship owned by the Leyland Line, part of J.P. Morgan's International Mercantile Marine Co. She was constructed by the Caledon Shipbuilding & Engineering Company in Dundee, Scotland, [8] and was the largest ship built in Dundee up to that time. [9] [10] The ship was built to the maximum dimensions that were allowed to moor and outfit her in the Dundee Docks. The ship's size and importance to the local shipbuilding industry meant that there was a lot of local interest in her construction as it progressed. There were also some problems – when both of the ship's boilers were being transported through the streets from a foundry to the shipyard the weight of them (carried on a wheeled bogie) caused considerable damage to the city's roads, as well as breaking a number of underground water pipes. Later when a crane was being used to rig a spar on one of the Californian's four masts, the spar became tangled in nearby telephone wires and severed them. [11]

She was designed primarily to transport cotton, but also had the capacity to carry 47 passengers and 55 crew members.[ citation needed ] The primary clientele was those passengers with too limited the means to travel on board large liners. By offering them comfortable cabins at an affordable prices (£10 per crossing in the direction Liverpool — Boston, £50 in the opposite direction), Leyland Line was able to secure some profits this way. [12] [13] Nonetheless, the ship was still primarily a freighter, as evidenced by her massive bunkers. She was named Californian according to a tradition specific to the company which gave its ships the name of one of the 46 states of the United States at the time. [14] She measured 6,223 tons, was 447 feet (136 m) long, 53 feet (16 m) at her beam, [10] and had a triple expansion steam engine powered by two double-ended boilers. Her average full speed was 12 knots (22 km/h). [15] The accommodation of most of the fifty or so crew members was located below the foredeck. They stayed there in cabins designed for four to eight people that were quite uncomfortable, poorly ventilated and lit. [16] In all, the crew included the captain, four officers, a radio operator, and 49 crew members (sailors, drivers, trimmers, etc.). [17] The cabins were located in the superstructure. The officers of the crew resided on the starboard side and the passengers on the port side. The facilities for passengers corresponded to the second class of most ships of the time. Although the cabins were not of high quality, they remained comfortable and had electric lighting, which was not the case on all contemporary ships. The passengers of the Californian also had at their disposal a smoking room on the upper starboard deck, decorated with oak panels and linoleum, a novelty at the turn of the century. The dining room was also decorated and comfortable. [13]

An artist's depiction of Californian under steam. The SS Californian en route to America.jpg
An artist's depiction of Californian under steam.

Californian was launched on 26 November 1901 and completed her sea trials on 23 January 1902. From 31 January 1902 to 3 March 1902, she made her maiden voyage from Dundee to New Orleans, Louisiana, United States. Subsequently, she made transatlantic crossings, generally carrying around thirty passengers in addition to her cargo. In 1902, she was chartered by the Dominion Line for five crossings to Portland, Maine. [18] She then returned to the Leyland Line service to serve the southern United States. [17] From 1901 to 1911, she was commanded successively by four captains before being finally put under the command of Stanley Lord. [19]

Between late 1911 and early 1912, Californian had a Marconi wireless apparatus installed in a refitted cabin. Her first radio operator was Cyril Furmstone Evans.

Sinking of Titanic

On March 30, 1912, the Californian made a stopover in London on a trip to New Orleans during which she had to face a storm which damaged part of her cotton cargo. Stanley Lord, who had commanded Californian since 27 March 1911, was her captain when she left the Royal Albert Dock, Liverpool, England on 5 April 1912 on her way to Boston, Massachusetts. [20] She was not carrying any passengers on this voyage. [12] On the navigation bridge, Lord was accompanied by three officers and an apprentice: George Stewart (second in command or chief officer), Herbert Stone (second officer), Charles Groves (third officer) and apprentice James Gibson. [21]

The first week of the crossing was uneventful. [22] On Sunday 14 April at 18:30 ship's time, Californian's only wireless operator, Cyril Furmstone Evans (born 1892 in Croydon, Surrey, United Kingdom), signalled to the Antillian that three large icebergs were five miles to the south. [23] Titanic's wireless operator Harold Bride also received the warning and delivered it to the ship's bridge a few minutes later. [24]

Californian encountered a large ice field at 22:20 ship's time, [4] and Captain Lord decided to stop the ship and wait until morning before proceeding further. [25] Before leaving the bridge, he thought he saw a ship's light away to the eastward but could not be sure it was not just a rising star. [26] Lord continued to the engineers' cabins and met with the chief, whom he told about his plans for stopping. As they were talking, they saw a ship's lights approaching. Lord asked Evans if he knew of any ships in the area, and Evans responded: "only the Titanic." Lord asked Evans to inform her that Californian was stopped and surrounded by ice. [27] Lord ordered Evans to warn all other ships in the area, which he did. [28]

Titanic's on-duty wireless operator, Jack Phillips, was busy clearing a backlog of passengers' messages with the wireless station at Cape Race, Newfoundland, 800 miles (1,300 km) away, at the time. Evans's message that SS Californian was stopped and surrounded by ice was heard very strongly on Titanic due to the relative proximity of the two ships and drowned out a separate message Phillips had been in the process of receiving from Cape Race, bringing Phillips to rebuke Evans: "Shut up, shut up! Keep out, I am busy; I am working Cape Race!". [29] [30] Philips never passed this message to the bridge, but in his defence, Evans had not prefixed the message with the letters, "MSG", which stood for Master Service Gram, as was customary for all messages intended for the bridge. A little bit later Evans, feeling that he had done his duty despite Philips's rude rejection of the message, switched off his wireless equipment and went to bed. [31] [32] 10 minutes later, at 23:40, Titanic hit an iceberg. [33] Shortly after midnight, she transmitted her first distress call.

Third Officer Charles Groves of the Californian testified to the British inquiry that at 23:10 ship's time, he had seen the lights of another ship come into view 10 or 12 miles away, 3.5 points above Californian's starboard beam. At about 23:30, Groves went below to inform Lord. [34] The latter suggested that the ship be contacted by Morse lamp, which was tried, but no reply was seen. [35] To Groves, she was clearly a large liner, as she had multiple decks brightly lit. The ship finally seemed to stop and extinguish her deck lights at 23:40, the same time Titanic stopped her engines. At the British inquiry, Groves agreed that if the ship he saw had turned two points to port, it would have concealed her deck lights. [34]

Slightly after midnight, Second Officer Herbert Stone took watch from Groves. He testified that he, too, observed the ship, judging it to be about five miles away. He tried signalling her with the Morse lamp, also without success. [36] Apprentice officer James Gibson, who had been doing the Morse signalling, testified that at 00:55, Stone told him he had observed five rockets in the sky above the nearby ship. [37] Stone testified that he had informed Captain Lord, although the British inquiry did not ask whether or not he communicated the number. Lord asked if the rockets had been a company signal, but Stone did not know. Lord and Stone both testified that Stone reported they were not distress signals. [26] [36] Lord ordered Stone to tell him if anything about the ship changed, to keep signalling it with the Morse lamp, but did not order that it be contacted by wireless. [38] [39]

Gibson testified that Stone had expressed unease to him about the situation: "A ship is not going to fire rockets at sea for nothing", Stone said. "She looks very queer out of the water—her lights look queer." [37] Gibson observed, "She looks rather to have a big side out of the water", and he agreed that "everything was not all right with her"; that it was "a case of some kind of distress". [40] Stone, however, under questioning by the British inquiry which became more and more incredulous, testified repeatedly that he did not think at the time that the rockets could have been distress signals, [41] and that the possibility did not occur to him until he learned the Titanic had sunk.

By 02:00, the ship appeared to be leaving the area. A few minutes later, Gibson informed Captain Lord as such and that eight white rockets had been seen. Lord asked whether he was sure of the colour. Gibson said yes and left. [26] [37]

At 02:20, Titanic sank. At 03:40, Stone and Gibson, still sharing the middle watch, spotted rockets to the south. [37] They did not see the ship that was firing them, but at about this same time RMS Carpathia was coming quickly from the southeast, firing rockets to let Titanic know that help was on the way. [42] At 04:16, Chief Officer George F. Stewart relieved Stone, and almost immediately noticed, coming into view from the south, a brilliantly-lit, four-masted steamship with one funnel; [43] Carpathia arrived on the scene shortly after 04:00. [44] Captain Lord woke up at 04:30 and went out on deck to decide how to proceed past the ice to the west. He sent Stewart to wake Evans and find out what happened to the ship they had seen to the south. They subsequently learned from the Frankfurt that the Titanic had sunk overnight. [45] [46] Lord ordered the ship underway. Californian's course took her west, slowly passing through the ice field, after which she turned south. Californian was sighted at 06:00 by SS Mount Temple steaming from the north. Californian actually passed the Carpathia to the west, then turned, and headed northeast back towards the rescue ship, arriving at 08:30. [47]

Carpathia was just finishing picking up the last of Titanic's survivors. After communicating with Californian, Carpathia left the area, leaving Californian to search for any other survivors. However, Californian only found scattered wreckage, empty lifeboats, and corpses, [48] [47] and continued on its route to America. Upon arrival, several key crew members, including Lord and Evans, were summoned to give evidence at the American inquiry. Evans also gave evidence at the British inquiry into the tragedy. Like others involved in the disaster, he was offered large sums of money from newspapers for his story, but he refused it. [49]

Aftermath

A United States Senate inquiry into the sinking of the RMS Titanic started on 19 April 1912, the day Californian arrived unnoticed in Boston. Initially, the world was unaware of her proximity to the disaster. On 22 April, the inquiry discovered that a ship near Titanic had failed to respond to the distress signals. The identity of the ship was unknown. [50]

The next day, a small newspaper in New England, The Clinton Daily Item, printed a story claiming that Californian had refused aid to Titanic. [51] The source for the story was Californian's carpenter, James McGregor, who stated that he had seen Titanic's lights and distress rockets. On the same day, the Boston American printed a story sourced by Californian's assistant engineer, Ernest Gill, which essentially told the same story as the Daily Item.

Captain Lord also spoke with several Boston area newspapers but gave conflicting accounts. In a Boston Traveller article dated 19 April, Lord claimed that his ship was 30 miles from Titanic, [52] but in a Boston Post article dated 24 April, he claimed 20 miles. [53] Lord told the Boston Globe that his ship had spent three hours steaming around the wreck site trying to render assistance, [52] but Third Officer Grove later stated that the search ended after two hours, at 10:40. [54] When reporters asked Lord about his exact position the night of the disaster, he refused to respond, calling such information "state secrets". [55]

After the newspaper revelations on 23 April, the U.S. Senate inquiry issued subpoenas for multiple members of the crew, including Gill and Lord. During his testimony, Gill repeated his claims. [56] Lord's testimony was conflicting and changing. For example, he detailed three totally different ice conditions. He admitted knowing about the rockets, despite having told Boston newspapers that his ship had not seen any rockets, but insisted that they were not distress rockets. [57] He also asserted they were fired not from Titanic but a small steamship, the so-called "third ship" of the night. [58] Yet the testimony of Captain J. Knapp, U.S. Navy, and a part of the Navy Hydrographer's Office, made clear that Titanic and Californian were in sight of each other, and no third vessel had been in the area. [59]

The issue of Californian's so-called "scrap log" was also scrutinised; the unofficial log from which the information in the official log is drawn, having been approved by the captain. Company policy of International Mercantile Marine Co., the parent of both Leyland Line and the White Star Line, required scrap logs to be destroyed daily. [60] The official log mentioned neither a nearby ship nor rockets. At the British inquiry, Stone was not asked to recall the notations he had actually written in the scrap log, during his bridge-watch between midnight and 4:00 on 15 April. [61]

On 2 May, the British Wreck Commissioner's inquiry into the sinking of the Titanic began. Again, Lord gave conflicting, changing, and evasive testimony. The crew of Californian also gave conflicting testimonies. Most notably, Lord said he was not told that the nearby ship had disappeared, contradicting testimony from James Gibson who said he reported it, and Lord had acknowledged him. [37]

By contrast, Captain Arthur Rostron of Carpathia, at each inquiry, gave consistent and forthright testimony. During the British Inquiry, Rostron was asked to confirm an affidavit he had made to the United States Inquiry. Among the other things in his affidavit, he confirmed that "It was daylight at about 4.20 a.m. At 5 o'clock it was light enough to see all around the horizon. We then saw two steamships to the northwards, perhaps 7 or 8 miles distant. Neither of them was Californian." [62]

Also during the inquiries, Titanic survivors recalled seeing the lights of another ship after Titanic had hit the iceberg. To Titanic's Fourth Officer Boxhall, the other ship appeared to be off Titanic's bow, five miles (8 km) away and heading in her direction. Just like Californian's officers, Boxhall attempted signaling the ship with a Morse lamp, but received no response. [63] However, Titanic lookout Frederick Fleet, who was in the crow's nest when the iceberg was sighted and remained there for another forty minutes, testified at the US inquiry that he did not see the lights of another ship while in the crow's nest. He only saw a light later after leaving the ship on a lifeboat. [64]

Titanic's Captain Edward Smith had felt the ship was close enough that he ordered the first lifeboats launched on the port side to row over to the ship, drop off the passengers, and come back to Titanic for more. Moreover, lifeboat occupants reported the other ship's lights were seen from the lifeboats throughout the night; one lifeboat rowed towards them but never seemed to get any closer. [65] [ page needed ]

Both the American and British inquires found that Californian must have been closer than the 19.5 miles (31.4 km) claimed by Captain Lord, and that each ship was visible from the other. Indeed, when Carpathia arrived at the wreck site, a vessel was clearly seen to the north; this was later identified as Californian. [66] Both inquiries concluded that Captain Lord had failed to provide proper assistance to Titanic, the British Inquiry concluding that had Californian rendering assistance "… might have saved many if not all of the lives that were lost". [4]

In the months and years following the disaster, numerous preventive safety measures were enacted. The United States passed the Radio Act of 1912, which required 24-hour radio watch on all ships in case of an emergency. The first International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea formed a treaty that also required 24-hour radio monitoring and standardized the use of distress rockets.

Despite the criticisms of Lord's conduct, no formal charges were ever brought against him. As a result, he had no right of appeal against the inquiry's findings. [67] The issue was not considered again until the publication of Walter Lord's (unrelated to Captain Lord) book A Night to Remember in 1955 and the release of the 1958 film of the same name prompted Lord to seek a re-hearing of the inquiry relating to his ship, to counter the allegations made in the book and his portrayal in the film. Petitions presented to the UK Government in 1965 and 1968 by the Mercantile Marine Service Association (MMSA), a union to which Captain Lord belonged, failed to get the matter re-examined. [68] However, when the wreck of the Titanic was discovered by Ballard's expedition in 1985, it was found to be 13 miles from its reported position (the location accepted by both inquiries), so the Board of Trade ordered a re-examination. [69]

The British Government's Marine Accident Investigation Branch (MAIB) concluded its reappraisal of evidence in 1992. The conclusions were those of Deputy Chief Inspector, James de Coverly, stating: "What is significant, however, is that no ship was seen by the Titanic until well after the collision … watch was maintained with officers on the bridge and seamen in the crow's nest, and with their ship in grave danger the lookout for another vessel which could come to their help must have been most anxious and keen. It is in my view inconceivable that the Californian or any other ship was within the visible horizon of the Titanic during that period; it equally follows that the Titanic can't have been within the Californian's horizon." The report went on: "More probably, in my view, the ship seen by Californian was another, unidentified, vessel." [70]

The original investigator of the 1992 reappraisal was a Captain Barnett, who unlike de Coverly, concluded "that the Titanicwas seen by the Californian and indeed kept under observation from 23:00 or soon after on 14 April until she sank ... [based on] the evidence from Captain Lord and the two watch officers, Mr. Grove and Mr. Stone". [70] It was after Barnett's original report was submitted that Captain de Coverly was given the task of further examination. Both Barnett and de Coverly had concluded that Titanic's rockets had been seen and that Stone and Lord had not responded appropriately to signals of distress.

The 1992 MAIB report concluded that Captain Lord and his crew's actions "fell far short of what was needed," [71] but conceded that absent this, Californian could not have arrived on the scene until "well after the sinking". [67] It also noted that when he did know of Titanic's distress, Lord twice took his ship across an ice field to help search for survivors. [72] Captain Lord's chief defender, union attorney Leslie Harrison, who had led the fight to have the Californian incident re-examined by the British government, called the dual conclusions of the report "an admission of failure to achieve the purpose of the reappraisal". [73]

The 1992 report by the MAIB was published just months after their publication of another controversial report, on the subject of the Marchioness disaster of 1989. [74] This report had led to questions over the evidence-gathering, conduct and judgements of the MAIB. [74]

Author Paul Lee accused Captain Lord of an "inability or unwillingness to adjust to an entirely new situation". [51] Although Lord had stopped his ship upon encountering ice, the British inquiry concluded that if Californian had acted upon the rockets and pushed through the ice, the Californian "might have saved many, if not all, of the lives that were lost". [4] The U.S Senate inquiry was also critical of Lord's inaction, the final report stating that "such conduct, whether arising from indifference or gross carelessness, is most reprehensible, and places upon the commander the Californian a grave responsibility". [5]

Senator William Alden Smith, in a speech to the U.S. Senate inquiry, said: "the failure of Capt. Lord to arouse the wireless operator on his ship, who could have easily ascertained the name of the vessel in distress and reached her in time to avert loss of life, places a tremendous responsibility upon this officer from which it will be very difficult for him to escape". [75] Author Daniel Allen Butler wrote: "The crime of Stanley Lord was not that he may have ignored the Titanic's rockets, but that he unquestionably ignored someone's cry for help." [76]

Others have suggested that, considering all the circumstances, there was actually little if anything the Californian could have done to prevent or reduce the loss of life. Allegations have been made that trade unions defending Captain Lord succeeded in influencing the reports from the official investigations before they were available to the public. [77] Williams and Kamps wrote in Titanic and the Californian: "Bearing [the] distance in mind, and recalling that a mere fifty-five minutes had elapsed from the time Captain Lord was first informed about the rockets to the moment the Titanic slipped beneath the waves, it would have been nothing short of a miracle for Lord to bring his ship to the Titanic and effect a rescue in such a short space of time." [78]

Titanic historian Tim Maltin theorized[ clarification needed ] that the Californian's inaction was the result of a cold water mirage, or superior mirage, arising from differences in air temperature over the warmer waters of the Atlantic Ocean and the colder waters of the Labrador Current. Maltin suggested that this would cause a superior refraction, superimposing and stretching and distorting the edge of the sea and lifting images of objects, distorting their appearance. This would explain why the Titanic's Morse lamp was believed to be a flickering oil lamp on the mast of a much smaller ship, and why Capt. Lord thought the Titanic was a different vessel. If correct, Maltin's theory may further explain why the Titanic's lookouts did not spot the iceberg earlier. [79]

Cyril Evans continued his service with the Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company and its successor companies (Eastern Telegraph Company and Cable & Wireless: the later part of his career was spent as manager for Cable and Wireless on the West Indian island of St Lucia) for the rest of his life. He also served at sea in World War I and World War II, running mobile telecommunications for the British Army in North Africa and then Italy. He married and raised a family. In the film A Night to Remember , Evans was portrayed by Geoffrey Bayldon. [80]

Later career and sinking

Greece location map.svg
Diamond sheer black 20.png
Red pog.svg
class=notpageimage|
Site of sinking (diamond), off Cape Matapan (red dot)

On 2 July 1913, Californian was docked in Veracruz when a fire erupted in her nos. 3 and 4 holds, sustaining serious damage to herself and her cargo. [81] [82] [ unreliable source? ]

Californian continued in normal commercial service until World War I, when the British government took control of her. She was responsible for transporting equipments and troops for the Allies mired in the Battle of Gallipoli. [83]

At 07:45 on 9 November 1915, while en route from Salonica to Marseilles at a speed of 12 knots, with a French torpedo boat escort, [84] she was torpedoed by the German U-boat SM U-34. The escort tried to take her under tow, but the tow rope broke at 13:20. During a second attempt at 14:15, she was torpedoed again by sister SM U-35 and began to sink quickly. The crew evacuated onto the patrol boat, and finally Californian [85] sank in 10–13,000 feet of water, approximately 60 miles (50 nmi; 100 km) south-southwest of Cape Matapan, Greece. Fireman Richard John Harding [86] was killed during the first torpedo attack, and two other firemen were scalded. [81] To date, Californian's wreck remains undiscovered. [87] Californian sunk less than 200 miles (170 nmi; 320 km) from where HMHS Britannic, a sister ship to Titanic, would sink only a little over a year later by striking a mine laid by German SM U-73. [88]

The involvement of the Californian in the sinking of the Titanic is examined in the 2012 BBC TV drama SOS –The Titanic Inquiry. The drama tells the story of the original British Inquiry into the sinking of Titanic, which decided, using the facts that were available at the time, whether the Californian was in near enough proximity to the vessel to rescue some, if not all, of the 1,500 lives lost. [89]

The 2016 novel The Midnight Watch by David Dyer explores the Titanic tragedy from the perspective of the crew of the Californian. The narrative centres around a fictional American reporter who tries to uncover what really happened on board the Californian that fateful night. [90]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stanley Lord</span> English sea captain

Stanley Phillip Lord was captain of the SS Californian, the nearest ship to the Titanic on the night she sank on 15 April 1912, and, depending on which sources are believed, likely the only ship to see the Titanic, or at least her rockets, during the sinking.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jack Phillips (wireless officer)</span> RMS Titanic wireless operator (1887–1912)

John George "Jack" Phillips was a British sailor and the senior wireless operator aboard the Titanic during her ill-fated maiden voyage in April 1912.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Harold Bride</span> British Titanic survivor (1890–1956)

Harold Sydney Bride was a British merchant seaman and the junior wireless officer on the ocean liner RMS Titanic during her ill-fated maiden voyage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arthur Rostron</span> British merchant seaman (1869–1940)

Sir Arthur Henry Rostron, KBE, RD was a British merchant seaman and a seagoing officer for the Cunard Line. He is best known as the captain of the ocean liner RMS Carpathia, when it rescued the survivors from the RMS Titanic after the ship sank in 1912 in the middle of the North Atlantic Ocean.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Joseph Boxhall</span> Fourth officer of RMS Titanic (1884–1967)

Commander Joseph Groves Boxhall RD, RNR was the fourth officer on the RMS Titanic, and later served as a naval officer in World War I. Boxhall was the last surviving former officer of the Titanic.

<i>A Night to Remember</i> (1958 film) 1958 British film by Roy Ward Baker

A Night to Remember is a 1958 British historical disaster docudrama film based on the eponymous 1955 book by Walter Lord. The film and book recount the final night of RMS Titanic, which sank on her maiden voyage after she struck an iceberg in 1912. Adapted by Eric Ambler and directed by Roy Ward Baker, the film stars Kenneth More as the ship's Second Officer Charles Lightoller and features Michael Goodliffe, Laurence Naismith, Kenneth Griffith, David McCallum and Tucker McGuire. It was filmed in the United Kingdom and tells the story of the sinking, portraying the main incidents and players in a documentary-style fashion with considerable attention to detail. The production team, supervised by producer William MacQuitty used blueprints of the ship to create authentic sets, while Fourth Officer Joseph Boxhall and ex-Cunard Commodore Harry Grattidge worked as technical advisors on the film. Its estimated budget of up to £600,000 was exceptional and made it the most expensive film ever made in Britain up to that time. The film's score was written by William Alwyn.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Harold Cottam</span> Wireless operator on the RMS Carpathia (1891–1984)

Harold Thomas Cottam was a British wireless operator on the RMS Carpathia who fortuitously happened to receive the distress call from the sinking RMS Titanic on 15 April 1912. Cottam's decision to awaken Captain Arthur Henry Rostron and relay Titanic's message in spite of the scepticism of the officer on watch allowed Carpathia to arrive at the scene hours before any other ship and is "credited with saving hundreds of lives." He was a personal friend of the Titanic's wireless operators Harold Bride and Jack Phillips.

SS <i>Mount Temple</i> Passenger cargo steamship built in 1901

Mount Temple was a passenger cargo steamship built in 1901 by Armstrong Whitworth & Company of Newcastle for Elder, Dempster & Co Ltd of Liverpool to operate as part of its Beaver Line. The ship was shortly afterwards acquired by the Canadian Pacific Railway. She was one of the first vessels to respond to the distress signals of RMS Titanic in 1912.

Sinking of the <i>Titanic</i> 1912 maritime disaster

RMS Titanic sank on 15 April 1912 in the North Atlantic Ocean. The largest ocean liner in service at the time, Titanic was four days into her maiden voyage from Southampton to New York City, with an estimated 2,224 people on board when she struck an iceberg at 23:40 on 14 April. Her sinking two hours and forty minutes later at 02:20 ship's time on 15 April resulted in the deaths of more than 1,500 people, making it one of the deadliest peacetime maritime disasters in history.

RMS <i>Carpathia</i> Ocean liner known for rescuing survivors of RMS Titanic

RMS Carpathia was a Cunard Line transatlantic passenger steamship built by Swan Hunter & Wigham Richardson in their shipyard in Wallsend, England.

<i>Titanic</i> British passenger liner that sank in 1912

RMS Titanic was a British ocean liner that sank on 15 April 1912 as a result of striking an iceberg on her maiden voyage from Southampton, England, to New York City, United States. Of the estimated 2,224 passengers and crew aboard, approximately 1,500 died, making the incident one of the deadliest peacetime sinkings of a single ship. Titanic, operated by the White Star Line, carried some of the wealthiest people in the world, as well as hundreds of emigrants from the British Isles, Scandinavia, and elsewhere in Europe who were seeking a new life in the United States and Canada. The disaster drew public attention, spurred major changes in maritime safety regulations, and inspired a lasting legacy in popular culture.

Legends and myths regarding the <i>Titanic</i> "Unsinkable" ship and other made-up details

There have been several legends and myths surrounding the RMS Titanic and its destruction after colliding with an iceberg in the Atlantic Ocean. These have ranged from stories involving the myth about the ship having been described as "unsinkable" to the myth concerning the final song played by the ship's musicians.

<i>Titanic</i> Lifeboat No. 1 Lifeboat on the Titanic

Titanic Lifeboat No. 1 was a lifeboat from the steamship Titanic. It was the fifth boat launched to sea, over an hour after the liner collided with an iceberg and began sinking on 14 April 1912. With a capacity of 40 people, it was launched with only 12 aboard, the fewest to escape in any one boat that night.

Lifeboats of the <i>Titanic</i> Lifesaving craft for the RMS Titanic

Lifeboats played a crucial role during the sinking of the Titanic on 14–15 April 1912. The ship had 20 lifeboats that, in total, could accommodate 1,178 people, a little over half of the 2,209 on board the night it sank.

United States Senate inquiry into the sinking of the <i>Titanic</i> Maritime disaster investigation

The sinking of the RMS Titanic on April 14–15, 1912 resulted in an inquiry by a subcommittee of the Commerce Committee of the United States Senate, chaired by Senator William Alden Smith. The hearings began in New York on April 19, 1912, later moving to Washington, D.C., concluding on May 25, 1912 with a return visit to New York.

British Wreck Commissioners inquiry into the sinking of the <i>Titanic</i>

The sinking of the RMS Titanic on 15 April 1912 resulted in an inquiry by the British Wreck Commissioner on behalf of the British Board of Trade. The inquiry was overseen by High Court judge John Bigham, 1st Viscount Mersey, and was held in London from 2 May to 3 July 1912. The hearings took place mainly at the London Scottish Drill Hall, at 59 Buckingham Gate, London SW1.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Frederick Barrett</span> English stoker and Titanic survivor (1883–1931)

Frederick William Barrett was a British stoker. After having served as a stoker on several ships, on 6 April 1912, he was hired on board the RMS Titanic as lead stoker. On April 15, 1912, while the ship was sinking, Barrett boarded lifeboat No. 13 and took command of it, thus surviving the disaster. He later testified before commissions of inquiry into the sinking of the ship and continued to work in the navy until the 1920s. In 1923, after losing his wife Mary Anne Jones, he remained in Liverpool and worked ashore as a logger.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Antoinette Flegenheim</span>

Antoinette "Tony" Flegenheim was a survivor of the sinking of the RMS Titanic.

SS <i>Frankfurt</i> German, later British, steamship

SS Frankfurt was a German steamship built by Joh. C. Tecklenborg. First launched on 17 December 1899, Frankfurt was first operated under Norddeutscher Lloyd. She took frequent passages between Germany and the United States from 1900 to 1918. Many of her passengers were migrants. In 1919, Frankfurt was acquired by the White Star Line after she was surrendered to the United Kingdom in World War I. In 1922, Frankfurt was then sold to the Oriental Navigation Company in British Hong Kong, where she was renamed Sarvistan.

SS <i>Birma</i> Transatlantic passenger ship in service 1895–1924

SS Birma was a British-built transatlantic passenger ship. She was built in 1894 by Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Company in Govan, United Kingdom, as Arundel Castle and later went through numerous ownership and name changes, including coming into the hands of the Russian American Line. In 1912, Birma was one of the ships to respond to the sinking of RMS Titanic. She was broken up in 1924 following acquisition by a German line after a liquidation sale.

References

  1. 1 2 "Caledon Built – Dundee Ships", Friends of Dundee City Archives
  2. ↑ "Abandoning the Titanic ~ About the Film | Secrets of the Dead | PBS". PBS . 6 October 2020.
  3. ↑ Ringle, Ken (30 June 1991). "THE SHIP THAT PASSED IN THE NIGHT" . Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  4. 1 2 3 4 "Circumstances in Connection with the SS Californian". British Wreck Commissioner's Inquiry. 30 July 1912. Archived from the original on 6 May 2016. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
  5. 1 2 "United States Senate Inquiry Report: Pleas for Help; Steamship "Californian's" responsibility". Titanic Inquiry Project. 30 July 1912. Retrieved 28 April 2016.
  6. ↑ Clarke, Jim (11 April 2012). "Titanic disaster: How history has judged Bolton's sea captains". BBC News. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
  7. ↑ "RMS "TITANIC" Reappraisal of Evidence Relating to SS "CALIFORNIAN"" (PDF). Marine Accident Investigation Branch. 2 April 1992. p. 18. Retrieved 25 January 2018.
  8. ↑ Butler 2009 , p. 37
  9. ↑ Wright, Jerry (2011). "Some Dundee Ships". Friends of Dundee City Archives. Archived from the original on 5 August 2021. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
  10. 1 2 Butler 2009 , p. 38
  11. ↑ Duzen, Harland (18 October 2018). "The SS Californian and Dundee: Scotland's Forgotten Leviathan". Encyclopedia Titanica.
  12. 1 2 Piouffre 2009 , p. 20
  13. 1 2 Butler 2009 , p. 43
  14. ↑ Butler 2009 , p. 46
  15. ↑ Chirnside 2004 , p. 309
  16. ↑ Butler 2009 , p. 39
  17. 1 2 Butler 2009 , p. 44
  18. ↑ "The Great Ocean Liners". Archived from the original on 8 February 2012. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
  19. ↑ Butler 2009 , p. 48
  20. ↑ Butler 2009 , p. 50
  21. ↑ Butler 2009 , p. 51
  22. ↑ Butler 2009 , p. 52
  23. ↑ "Testimony of Cyril F. Evans". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 28 April 2016. [the ice warning] is dated 6.30 p. m. "A.T.S." which means apparent time ship … The sent date was 5.35 p.m., New York time.
  24. ↑ "Testimony of Harold S. Bride, recalled". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 29 April 2016. (The Attorney General.): Could you tell us how long it was after you got the message that you delivered it on the bridge? Bride: About two minutes.
  25. ↑ Piouffre 2009 , p. 22
  26. 1 2 3 "Testimony of Stanley Lord, cont". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 29 April 2016. When I came off the bridge, at half-past 10, I pointed out to the officer that I thought I saw a light coming along, and it was a most peculiar light, and we had been making mistakes all along with the stars, thinking they were signals … He said he thought it was a star, and I did not say anything more.
  27. ↑ "Testimony of Stanley Lord". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 29 April 2016. I said, "Let the 'Titanic' know that we are stopped, surrounded by ice."
  28. ↑ A Night to Remember p.24
  29. ↑ Elverhøi, Peter (15 October 2013). "Acquitting the Iceberg". Encyclopedia Titanica. Retrieved 27 April 2016. Phillips was tired and on edge and Cyril Evans' call burst in on him like a thunderclap; so loud, we are assured, it hurt his ears.
  30. ↑ Piouffre 2009 , p. 23
  31. ↑ "Testimony of Cyril F. Evans". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 5 May 2016. At 11.25 I still had the phones on my ears and heard him still working Cape Race, about two or three minutes before the half-hour ship's time, that was, and at 11.35 I put the phones down and took off my clothes and turned in.
  32. ↑ Piouffre 2009 , pp. 24–25
  33. ↑ Chirnside 2004 , p. 155
  34. 1 2 "Testimony of Charles V. Groves". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 28 April 2016.
  35. ↑ "Testimony of Stanley Lord, cont". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 27 April 2016. We signaled her, at half-past 11, with the Morse lamp. She did not take the slightest notice of it.
  36. 1 2 "Testimony of Herbert Stone". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
  37. 1 2 3 4 5 "Testimony of James Gibson". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
  38. ↑ Piouffre 2009 , p. 25
  39. ↑ Butler 2009 , p. 55
  40. ↑ "Testimony of James Gibson, cont". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
  41. ↑ "Testimony of Herbert Stone, cont". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
  42. ↑ Butler 2009 , p. 94
  43. ↑ "Testimony of George F. Stewart". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
  44. ↑ "Electronic copies of the inquiries into the disaster". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
  45. ↑ Butler 2009 , p. 96
  46. ↑ "Testimony of George F. Stewart, cont". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
  47. 1 2 Piouffre 2009 , p. 202
  48. ↑ Clarke, Jim (11 April 2012). "History judges Titanic captains". BBC News. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
  49. ↑ Butler 2009 , p. 101
  50. ↑ Lee 2008 , pp. 15–18
  51. 1 2 Lee 2008 , p. 180
  52. 1 2 Lee 2008 , p. 13
  53. ↑ Lee 2008 , p. 22
  54. ↑ "Testimony of Charles V. Groves". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 3 May 2016.
  55. ↑ Hamer, John (2013). RMS Olympic. Rossendale Books. p. 253. ISBN   978-1-291-63862-2.
  56. ↑ "Testimony of Ernest Gill". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
  57. ↑ "Testimony of Stanley Lord, cont". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 27 April 2016. Senator SMITH: Captain, did you see any distress signals on Sunday night, either rockets or the Morse signals? Mr. LORD: No sir; I did not. The officer on watch saw some signals, but he said they were not distress signals.
  58. ↑ "Testimony of Stanley Lord, cont". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 27 April 2016. I said, 'This is not the Titanic; there is no doubt about it.'
  59. ↑ "Testimony of John J. Knapp". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
  60. ↑ "Testimony of George F. Stewart, cont". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
  61. ↑ Molony, Senan (2006). Titanic and the Mystery Ship. The History Press. p. 278.
  62. ↑ "Testimony of Arthur H. Rostron". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
  63. ↑ "Testimony of Joseph G. Boxhall". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
  64. ↑ "Testimony of Frederick Fleet". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
  65. ↑ Bartlett, W.B. (2010). 9 Hours to Hell, the Survivors' Story. Amberly. ISBN   9781848684225.
  66. ↑ Butler 2009 , p. 186 "There was another vessel within sight of the Carpathia, facing to the west, north of where the Titanic's lifeboats waited, but clearly within visual distance of where the Titanic sank. It was the Californian."
  67. 1 2 "RMS "TITANIC" Reappraisal of Evidence Relating to SS "CALIFORNIAN"" (PDF). Marine Accident Investigation Branch. 2 April 1992. p. 18. Retrieved 25 January 2018.
  68. ↑ "RMS "TITANIC" Reappraisal of Evidence Relating to SS "CALIFORNIAN"" (PDF). Marine Accident Investigation Branch. 2 April 1992. p. 1. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
  69. ↑ "RMS "TITANIC" Reappraisal of Evidence Relating to SS "CALIFORNIAN"" (PDF). Marine Accident Investigation Branch. 2 April 1992. p. 2. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
  70. 1 2 "RMS "TITANIC" Reappraisal of Evidence Relating to SS "CALIFORNIAN"" (PDF). Marine Accident Investigation Branch. 2 April 1992. p. 12. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
  71. ↑ "RMS "TITANIC" Reappraisal of Evidence Relating to SS "CALIFORNIAN"" (PDF). Marine Accident Investigation Branch. 2 April 1992. p. 15. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
  72. ↑ "RMS "TITANIC" Reappraisal of Evidence Relating to SS "CALIFORNIAN"" (PDF). Marine Accident Investigation Branch. 2 April 1992. p. 16. Retrieved 25 January 2018.
  73. ↑ Harrison, Leslie (1992). A Titanic Myth: The Californian Incident. S.P.A. ISBN   9781854211842.[ page needed ]
  74. 1 2 Hartley, Hazel (2001). Exploring Sport & Leisure Disasters: A Socio-Legal Perspective . London: Cavendish Publishing. p.  1. ISBN   978-1-85941-650-1.
  75. ↑ "Speech of Senator William Alden Smith, cont". United States Senate Inquiry. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
  76. ↑ Butler 2009 , p. 199
  77. ↑ Butler, Daniel Allen (2011). Unsinkable: The Full Story. Frontline Books. p. 241. ISBN   9781848326415.
  78. ↑ Williams, Thomas; Kamps, Rob (2007). Titanic and the Californian. The History Press. p. 98. ISBN   9780752467610 . Retrieved 27 April 2016.
  79. ↑ Levy, Nigel (Director) (15 April 2012). Titanic's Final Mystery (Motion Picture). Various: Breen, Simon.
  80. ↑ "A Night to Remember (1958) Full Cast & Crew". www.imdb.com. Retrieved 2 July 2023.
  81. 1 2 "SS Californian". 11 March 2014 – via Flickr.
  82. ↑ "Californian".
  83. ↑ Butler 2009 , p. 214
  84. ↑ The SS Californian and Dundee: Scotland’s Forgotten Leviathan by Harland Duzen, Appendix: Summary of the Californian’s Career 1902 -1915
  85. ↑ Clive Cussler. "Read online: "The Sea Hunters II: More True Adventures with Famous Shipwrecks"". rulit.me. p. 70. Archived from the original on 9 April 2023. Retrieved 20 April 2020.
  86. ↑ "Californian". Encyclopedia Titanica.
  87. ↑ Tennent, A.J (2006). British Merchant Ships Sunk by U-boats in World War One. Periscope Publishing. p. 153. ISBN   9781904381365 . Retrieved 27 April 2016.
  88. ↑ Butler 2009 , p. 215
  89. ↑ "Titanic drama focuses on Californian question". BBC News. 15 April 2012. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
  90. ↑ Krist, Gary (29 April 2016). "'The Midnight Watch,' by David Dyer (Published 2016)". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 1 January 2021.

Bibliography

Further reading

35°32′30″N22°06′06″E / 35.54167°N 22.10167°E / 35.54167; 22.10167

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.