United Empire Loyalist

Last updated

United Empire Loyalists
AbbreviationUEL
Formation9 November 1789;234 years ago (1789-11-09) [note 1]
PurposeHonorific title
Origins Loyalists (American Revolution)
Region served
British Empire, Canada
The United Empire Loyalist flag, which is similar to but wider than the flag of Great Britain. Flag of the United Empire Loyalists.svg
The United Empire Loyalist flag, which is similar to but wider than the flag of Great Britain.

United Empire Loyalist (UEL; or simply Loyalist) is an honorific title which was first given by the 1st Lord Dorchester, the Governor of Quebec and Governor General of the Canadas, to American Loyalists who resettled in British North America [1] during or after the American Revolution. At that time, the demonym Canadian or Canadien was used to refer to the indigenous First Nations groups and the descendants of New France settlers inhabiting the Province of Quebec. [2]

Contents

They settled primarily in Nova Scotia and the Province of Quebec. The influx of loyalist settlers resulted in the creation of several new colonies. In 1784, New Brunswick was partitioned from the Colony of Nova Scotia after significant loyalist resettlement around the Bay of Fundy. [3] [4] The influx of loyalist refugees also resulted in the Province of Quebec's division into Lower Canada (present-day Quebec), and Upper Canada (present-day Ontario) in 1791. The Crown gave them land grants of one lot. One lot consisted of 200 acres (81 ha) per person to encourage their resettlement, as the Government wanted to develop the frontier of Upper Canada. This resettlement added many English speakers to the Canadian population. It was the beginning of new waves of immigration that established a predominantly Anglo-Canadian population in the future Canada both west and east of the modern Quebec border.

History

American Revolution

Depiction of Loyalist refugees on their way to the Canadas during the American Revolution. Tory Refugees by Howard Pyle.jpg
Depiction of Loyalist refugees on their way to the Canadas during the American Revolution.

Following the end of the American Revolutionary War and the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783, both Loyalist soldiers and civilians were evacuated from New York City, most heading for Canada. Many Loyalists had already migrated to Canada, especially from New York and northern New England, where violence against them had increased during the war.

The Crown-allotted land in Canada was sometimes allotted according to which Loyalist regiment a man had fought in. This Loyalist resettlement was critical to the development of present-day Ontario, and some 10,000 refugees went to Quebec (including the Eastern Townships and modern-day Ontario). But Nova Scotia (including modern-day New Brunswick) received three times that number: about 35,000–40,000 Loyalist refugees. [5]

An unknown but substantial number of individuals did not stay; they eventually returned to the United States. As some families split in their loyalties during the war years, many Loyalists in Canada continued to maintain close ties with relatives in the United States. They conducted commerce across the border with little regard to British trade laws. [6] In the 1790s, the offer of land and low taxes, which were one-quarter those in America, for allegiance by Lieutenant-Governor Simcoe resulted in the arrival of 30,000 Americans often referred to as Late Loyalists. By the outbreak of the War of 1812, of the 110,000 inhabitants of Upper Canada, 20,000 were the initial Loyalists, 60,000 were later American immigrants and their descendants, and 30,000 were immigrants from the UK, their descendants or from the Old Province of Quebec. The later arrival of many of the inhabitants of Upper Canada suggests that land was the main reason for immigration.

Resettlement

The Coming of the Loyalists by Henry Sandham, showing a romanticised view of the Loyalists' arrival in New Brunswick. Henry Sandham - The Coming of the Loyalists.jpg
The Coming of the Loyalists by Henry Sandham, showing a romanticised view of the Loyalists' arrival in New Brunswick.

The arrival of the Loyalists after the Revolutionary War led to the division of Canada into the provinces of Upper Canada (what is now southern Ontario) and Lower Canada (today's southern Quebec). They arrived and were largely settled in groups by ethnicity and religion. Many soldiers settled with others of the regiments they had served with. [7] The settlers came from every social class and all thirteen colonies, unlike the depiction of them in the Sandham painting which suggests the arrivals were well-dressed upper-class immigrants.[ citation needed ]

Loyalists soon petitioned the government to be allowed to use the British legal system, which they were accustomed to in the American colonies, rather than the French system. Great Britain had maintained the French legal system and allowed freedom of religion after taking over the former French colony with the defeat of France in the Seven Years' War. With the creation of Upper and Lower Canada, most Loyalists in the west could live under British laws and institutions. The predominantly ethnic French population of Lower Canada, who were still French-speaking, could maintain their familiar French civil law and Catholic religion. [7]

Realizing the importance of some type of recognition, on 9 November 1789, Lord Dorchester, the governor of Quebec and Governor General of British North America, declared "that it was his Wish to put the mark of Honour upon the Families who had adhered to the Unity of the Empire". As a result of Dorchester's statement, the printed militia rolls carried the notation:

Those Loyalists who have adhered to the Unity of the Empire, and joined the Royal Standard before the Treaty of Separation in the year 1783, and all their Children and their Descendants by either sex, are to be distinguished by the following Capitals, affixed to their names: UE or U.E. Alluding to their great principle The Unity of the Empire.

Because most of the nations of the Iroquois had allied with the British, which had ceded their lands to the United States, thousands of Iroquois and other pro-British Native Americans were expelled from New York and other states. They were also resettled in Canada. Many of the Iroquois, led by Joseph Brant Thayendenegea, settled at Six Nations of the Grand River, the largest First Nations reserve in Canada. A smaller group of Iroquois led by Captain John Deserontyon Odeserundiye, settled on the shores of the Bay of Quinte in modern-day southeastern Ontario. [8]

A Black Loyalist wood cutter at Shelburne, Nova Scotia, in 1788. AricanNovaScotianByCaptain William Booth1788.png
A Black Loyalist wood cutter at Shelburne, Nova Scotia, in 1788.

The government settled some 3,500 Black Loyalists in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, but they faced discrimination and the same inadequate support that all Loyalists experienced. [9] Delays in making land grants, but mostly the willingness of the blacks to under-cut their fellow Loyalists and hire themselves out to the few available jobs at a lower wage aggravated racist tensions in Shelburne. Mobs of white Loyalists attacked Black Loyalists in the Shelburne Riots in July 1784, Canada's first so-called "race" riot. [10] The government was slow to survey the land of Black Loyalists (which meant they could not settle); it was also discriminatory in granting them smaller, poorer, and more remote lands than those of white settlers; not counting those Loyalists who were resettled in what would become Upper Canada, in general, or around the Bay of Quinte, in specific. This increased their difficulties in becoming established. [11] The majority of Black Loyalists in Canada were refugees from the American South; they suffered from this discrimination and the harsh winters.

When Great Britain set up the colony of Sierra Leone in Africa, nearly 1300 Black Loyalists emigrated there in 1792 for the promise of self-government. And so 2,200 remained. The Black Loyalists that left established Freetown in Sierra Leone. Well into the 20th century, together with other early settlers from Jamaica and slaves liberated from illegal slave ships, and despite vicious attacks from the indigenous peoples that nearly ended the Maroon colony, they and their descendants dominated the culture, economy and government of Sierra Leone. [12]

Numerous Loyalists had been forced to abandon substantial amounts of property in the United States. Britain sought restoration or compensation for this lost property from the United States, which was a major issue during the negotiation of the Jay Treaty in 1795. Negotiations settled on the concept of the United States negotiators "advising" the U.S. Congress to provide restitution. For the British, this concept carried significant legal weight, far more than it did to the Americans; the U.S. Congress declined to accept the advice.[ citation needed ]

Slavery

The Act Against Slavery, 1793, an anti-slavery act passed in Upper Canada. The Act was created partially in response to Loyalist refugees who brought slaves with them. An Act Against Slavery.jpg
The Act Against Slavery , 1793, an anti-slavery act passed in Upper Canada. The Act was created partially in response to Loyalist refugees who brought slaves with them.

Slave-owning Loyalists from across the former Thirteen Colonies brought their slaves with them to Canada, as the practice was still legal there. They took a total of about 2,000 slaves to British North America: 500 in Upper Canada (Ontario), 300 in Lower Canada (Quebec), and 1,200 in the Maritime colonies of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. The presence and condition of slaves in the Maritimes would become a particular issue. They constituted a larger portion of the population, but it was not an area of plantation agriculture.

The settlers eventually freed many of these slaves. Together with the free Black Loyalists, many chose to go to Sierra Leone in 1792 and following years, seeking a chance for self-government. Meanwhile, the British Parliament passed an imperial law in 1790 that assured prospective immigrants to Canada that they could retain their slaves as property. In 1793, an anti-slavery law was passed, in the 1st Parliament of Upper Canada. The Act Against Slavery banned the importation of slaves into the colony, and mandated the emancipation of all children born henceforth to female slaves upon reaching the age of 25. The Act was partially introduced due to the influx of the number of slaves brought by Loyalist refugees to Upper Canada. [13] The slave trade was abolished across the British Empire in 1807. The institution of slavery was abolished Empire-wide by 1834 (except in India, where it was considered an indigenous institution).

War of 1812

Depiction of Glengarry Light Infantry's charge across a frozen river during the Battle of Ogdensburg. The unit's membership was restricted to Loyalist and British settlers. Glengarrys at Ogdensburg.jpg
Depiction of Glengarry Light Infantry's charge across a frozen river during the Battle of Ogdensburg. The unit's membership was restricted to Loyalist and British settlers.

From 1812 to 1815, the United States and the United Kingdom were engaged in a conflict known as the War of 1812. On 18 June 1812, US President James Madison signed the declaration of war into law, after receiving heavy pressure from the War Hawks in Congress.

By 1812, Upper Canada had been settled mostly by Revolution-era Loyalists from the United States (United Empire Loyalists) and postwar American and British immigrants. The Canadas were thinly populated and only lightly defended by the British Army and the sedentary units of the Canadian Militia. American leaders assumed that Canada could be easily overrun, with former president Thomas Jefferson optimistically describing the potential conquest of Canada as "a matter of marching". [14] Many Loyalist Americans had migrated to Upper Canada after the Revolutionary War. However, there was also a significant number of non-Loyalist American settlers in the area due to the offer of land grants to immigrants. The Americans assumed the latter population would favour the American cause, but they did not. Although the population of Upper Canada included recent settlers from the United States who had no obvious loyalties to the Crown, the American forces found strong opposition from settlers during the War of 1812. [15] [16]

A number of loyalists served as fencibles, provincial regulars, in the Provincial Marine, or with the sedentary militia. With the successful defence of the Canadian colonies from American invasion, the War of 1812 is seen by Loyalists as a victory. [17] After the war, the British government transported to New Brunswick and settled about 400 of 3,000 former slaves from the United States whom they freed during and after the war. It had fulfilled its promise to them of freedom if they left Patriot slaveholders and fought with the British. Enslaved African Americans risked considerable danger by crossing to British lines to achieve freedom. [18]

Present

While the honorific "United Empire Loyalist" is not part of the official Canadian honours system, modern-day descendants of Loyalist refugees may employ it, sometimes using "U.E." as postnominal letters. The practice, however, is uncommon today, even in original Loyalist strongholds like southeastern Ontario. Historians and genealogists use it extensively as a shorthand for identifying the ancestry of particular families.[ citation needed ]

Gathering for the Loyalist Centennial Parade in Saint John, New Brunswick, in 1883. Gathering for the Parade, Loyalist Centennial, Saint John, New Brunswick.jpg
Gathering for the Loyalist Centennial Parade in Saint John, New Brunswick, in 1883.

The influence of the Loyalists on the evolution of Canada remains evident. Their ties with Britain and antipathy to the United States provided the strength needed to keep Canada independent and distinct in North America. The Loyalists' basic distrust of republicanism and "mob rule" influenced Canada's gradual, "paper-strewn" path to independence. The new British North American provinces of Upper Canada (the forerunner of Ontario) and New Brunswick were created as places of refuge for the United Empire Loyalists. The mottoes of the two provinces reflect this history: Ontario's, also found on its coat of arms, is Ut incepit fidelis sic permanet ("Loyal she began, loyal she remains"); New Brunswick's, Spem Reduxit ("Hope restored").

The word "Loyalist" appears frequently in school, street, and business names in such Loyalist-settled communities as Belleville, Ontario. The nearby city of Kingston, established as a Loyalist stronghold, was named in honour of King George III. And on the outskirts of that city is a township simply named "Loyalist".

Canada's 2021 Census estimates a population of 10,015 who identify as having United Empire Loyalist origins, based on a 25% sample. [19]

On 1 July 1934, Royal Mail Canada issued "United Empire Loyalists, 1776–1784" designed by Robert Bruce McCracken based on Sydney March's sculpture United Empire Loyalists. [20]

In 1996, Canadian politicians Peter Milliken (a descendant of American Loyalists) and John Godfrey sponsored the Godfrey–Milliken Bill, which would have entitled Loyalist descendants to reclaim ancestral property in the United States which had been confiscated during the American Revolution. The bill, which did not pass the House of Commons, was intended primarily as a satirical response to the contemporaneous American Helms–Burton Act. [21]

The Loyalist Flag flies at the Saskatchewan Legislative Building on UEL Day Loyalist Flag Over Saskatchewan Legislative Building.jpg
The Loyalist Flag flies at the Saskatchewan Legislative Building on UEL Day

In 1997, the Legislative Assembly of Ontario passed a bill declaring 19 June, "United Empire Loyalist Day" in Ontario. United Empire Loyalist Day is also celebrated on the same day in Saskatchewan, on 18 May in New Brunswick and on 22 July in British Columbia.

Memory and historiography

The Loyalists paid attention to their history developing an idealized image of themselves in which they took great pride. In 1898, Henry Coyne provided a glowing depiction:

The Loyalists, to a considerable extent, were the very cream of the population of the Thirteen Colonies. They represented in very large measure the learning, the piety, the gentle birth, the wealth and good citizenship of the British race in America, as well its devotion to law and order, British institutions, and the unity of the Empire. This was the leaven they brought to Canada, which has leavened the entire Dominion of this day. [22]

According to Canadian historians Margaret Conrad and Alvin Finkel, Coyne's memorial incorporates essential themes that have often been incorporated into patriotic celebrations. The Loyalist tradition, as explicated by Murray Barkley and Norman Knowles, includes:

The elite origins of the refugees, their loyalty to the British Crown, their suffering and sacrifice in the face of hostile conditions, their consistent anti-Americanism, and their divinely inspired sense of mission. [23]

Monument by Sydney March to the United Empire Loyalists in Hamilton, Ontario. United Empire Loyalist statue and plaque in Hamilton, Ontario.jpg
Monument by Sydney March to the United Empire Loyalists in Hamilton, Ontario.

Conrad and Finkel point out some exaggerations: only a small percentage of the Loyalists were colonial elite. In fact Loyalists were drawn from every stratum of colonial society, and few suffered violence and hardship. About 20 percent would later return to the United States. Most were loyal to all things British, but other Loyalists supported the United States in the War of 1812. Conrad and Finkel conclude:

[I]n using their history to justify claims to superiority, descendants of the Loyalists abuse the truth and actually diminish their status in the eyes of their non-Loyalists neighbours ... The scholars who argue that the Loyalists planted the seeds of Canadian liberalism or conservatism in British North America usually fail to take into account not only the larger context of political discussion that prevailed throughout the North Atlantic world, but also the political values brought to British North America by other immigrants in the second half of the 18th century. [24]

From the 1870s, many of their descendants returned to the United States in pursuit of cheaper land. In the New England states alone, more than 10% of the population can trace their roots to the Maritime Provinces. Two million more of 14 million inhabitants, or roughly 15%, are part or wholly of French Canadian descent.

United Empire Loyalists' Association

United Empire Loyalists' Association of Canada
AbbreviationUELAC
Formation27 May 1914;109 years ago (1914-05-27)
Legal statusCharity [25]
PurposeCultural, historical, hereditary association
Headquarters George Brown House
50 Baldwin Street, Suite 202
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Coordinates 43°39′21″N79°23′42″W / 43.655825°N 79.39502°W / 43.655825; -79.39502
President
Patricia Groom [26]

The United Empire Loyalists' Association of Canada (UELAC) is an organization of Loyalist descendants and others interested in Canadian history, in particular the role of the United Empire Loyalists. The organization was incorporated on 27 May 1914 by the Legislative Assembly of Ontario. In 1972, the organization was granted a coat of arms from the College of Arms through a letter patent, dated 28 March 1972. [27]

Symbols

A loyalist flag (right foreground) at the cairn dedicated to Saskatchewan settlers of Loyalist ancestry United Empire Loyalist Cairn, Wascana Park, Regina, Saskatchewan.jpg
A loyalist flag (right foreground) at the cairn dedicated to Saskatchewan settlers of Loyalist ancestry

On 17 April 1707, Queen Anne issued a proclamation referencing the use of the Union Flag "at Sea and Land". The Union Flag began to appear on forts and as regimental colours from this point, and at the time of the American Revolution, this was the flag in use. When those loyal to the Crown left the United States for British North America, they took this flag with them, and because of this historical connection, it continues to be the official flag of the UELAC.

In Canadian heraldry, Loyalist descendants are entitled to use a Loyalist coronet in their coat of arms. [28]

List of Loyalist settlements in Canada

18th-century names are listed first, alongside their present-day equivalents.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ The following date was when the honorific was created.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Loyalism</span> Allegiance to the British crown or the United Kingdom

Loyalism, in the United Kingdom, its overseas territories and its former colonies, refers to the allegiance to the British crown or the United Kingdom. In North America, the most common usage of the term refers to loyalty to the British Crown, notably with the loyalists opponents of the American Revolution, and United Empire Loyalists who moved to other colonies in British North America after the revolution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slavery in Canada</span>

Slavery in Canada includes historical practices of enslavement practised by both the First Nations until the 19th century, and by colonists during the period of European colonization.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1783 in Canada</span>

Events from the year 1783 in Canada.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Loyalist (American Revolution)</span> Colonists loyal to the British Crown during the American Revolution

Loyalists were colonists in the Thirteen Colonies who remained loyal to the British Crown during the American Revolutionary War, often referred to as Tories, Royalists or King's Men at the time. They were opposed by the Patriots, who supported the revolution, and called them "persons inimical to the liberties of America."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sir John Johnson, 2nd Baronet</span> American-born military officer, magistrate and landowner

Brigadier-General Sir John Johnson, 2nd Baronet was an American-born military officer, magistrate, landowner in the British Indian Department who fought as a Loyalist during the American Revolutionary War. He was the son of Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet, who was the first British Superintendent of Indian Affairs. He inherited his father's baronetcy and estate in 1774.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shelburne, Nova Scotia</span> Town in Nova Scotia, Canada

Shelburne is a town located in southwestern Nova Scotia, Canada.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black Loyalist</span> Slaves who sided with the Loyalists for freedom

Black Loyalists were people of African descent who sided with the Loyalists during the American Revolutionary War. In particular, the term refers to men who escaped enslavement by Patriot masters and served on the Loyalist side because of the Crown's guarantee of freedom.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Canada (1763–1867)</span> Colonial Canada

Starting with the 1763 Treaty of Paris, New France, of which the colony of Canada was a part, formally became a part of the British Empire. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 enlarged the colony of Canada under the name of the Province of Quebec, which with the Constitutional Act 1791 became known as the Canadas. With the Act of Union 1840, Upper and Lower Canada were joined to become the United Province of Canada.

American Canadians are Canadians of American descent. The term is most often used to refer to Canadians who migrated from or have ancestry from the United States. This may include people born in the United States who have naturalized as Canadian citizens. Many American Canadians hold both US and Canadian citizenship.

Thomas Peters, born Thomas Potters, was a veteran of the Black Pioneers, fighting for the British in the American Revolutionary War. A Black Loyalist, he was resettled in Nova Scotia, where he became a politician and one of the "Founding Fathers" of the nation of Sierra Leone in West Africa. Peters was among a group of influential Black Canadians who pressed the Crown to fulfill its commitment for land grants in Nova Scotia. Later they recruited African-American settlers in Nova Scotia for the colonisation of Sierra Leone in the late eighteenth century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black Nova Scotians</span> Black Canadians descended from American slaves, black Indigenous people, or freemen

Black Nova Scotians are Black Canadians whose ancestors primarily date back to the Colonial United States as slaves or freemen, later arriving in Nova Scotia, Canada, during the 18th and early 19th centuries. As of the 2021 Census of Canada, 28,220 Black people live in Nova Scotia, most in Halifax. Since the 1950s, numerous Black Nova Scotians have migrated to Toronto for its larger range of opportunities. Before the immigration reforms of 1967, Black Nova Scotians formed 37% of the total Black Canadian population.

Harry Washington was a Black Loyalist in the American Revolutionary War, and enslaved by Virginia planter George Washington, later the first President of the United States. When the war was lost the British then evacuated him to Nova Scotia. In 1792 he joined nearly 1,200 freedmen for resettlement in Sierra Leone, where they set up a colony of free people of color.

<i>Book of Negroes</i> 1783 British document

The Book of Negroes is a document created by Brigadier General Samuel Birch, under the direction of Sir Guy Carleton, that records names and descriptions of 3,000 Black Loyalists, enslaved Africans who escaped to the British lines during the American Revolution and were evacuated to points in Nova Scotia as free people of colour.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black refugee (War of 1812)</span> Black refugees during the war of 1812

Black refugees were black people who escaped slavery in the United States during the War of 1812 and settled in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Trinidad. The term is used in Canada for those who settled in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. They were the most numerous of the African Americans who sought freedom during the War of 1812. The Black refugees were the second group of African Americans, after the Black Loyalists, to flee American enslavement in wartime and settle in Canada. They make up the most significant single immigration source for today's African Nova Scotian communities. During the antebellum period, however, an estimated 10,000 to 30,000 Black refugees reached freedom in Canada, often traveling alone or in small family groups.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nova Scotian Settlers</span> Historical ethnic group that settled Sierra Leone

The Nova Scotian Settlers, or Sierra Leone Settlers, were African Americans who founded the settlement of Freetown, Sierra Leone and the Colony of Sierra Leone, on March 11, 1792. The majority of these black American immigrants were among 3,000 African Americans, mostly former slaves, who had sought freedom and refuge with the British during the American Revolutionary War, leaving rebel masters. They became known as the Black Loyalists. The Nova Scotian settlers were jointly led by African American Thomas Peters, a former soldier, and English abolitionist John Clarkson. For most of the 19th century, the Settlers resided in Settler Town and remained a distinct ethnic group within the Freetown territory, tending to marry among themselves and with Europeans in the colony.

British Canadians primarily refers to Canadians who were either born in or can trace their ancestry to the British Isles, which includes the nations of England, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Expulsion of the Loyalists</span>

During the American Revolution, those who continued to support King George III of Great Britain came to be known as Loyalists. Loyalists are to be contrasted with Patriots, who supported the Revolution. Historians have estimated that during the American Revolution, between 15 and 20 percent of the white population of the colonies, or about 500,000 people, were Loyalists. As the war concluded with Great Britain defeated by the Americans and the French, the most active Loyalists were no longer welcome in the United States, and sought to move elsewhere in the British Empire. The large majority of the Loyalists remained in the United States, however, and enjoyed full citizenship there.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nova Scotia in the American Revolution</span>

The Province of Nova Scotia was heavily involved in the American Revolutionary War (1776–1783). At that time, Nova Scotia also included present-day New Brunswick until that colony was created in 1784. The Revolution had a significant impact on shaping Nova Scotia, "almost the 14th American Colony". At the beginning, there was ambivalence in Nova Scotia over whether the colony should join the Americans in the war against Britain. Largely as a result of American privateer raids on Nova Scotia villages, as the war continued, the population of Nova Scotia solidified their support for the British. Nova Scotians were also influenced to remain loyal to Britain by the presence of British military units, judicial prosecution by the Nova Scotia Governors and the efforts of Reverend Henry Alline.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">American immigration to Canada</span>

American immigration to Canada was a notable part of the social history of Canada. Over Canada's history various refugees and economic migrants from the United States would immigrate to Canada for a variety of reasons. Exiled Loyalists from the United States first came, followed by African-American refugees, economic migrants, and later draft evaders from the Vietnam War.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black Canadians in Ontario</span>

Black Canadians migrated north in the 18th and 19th centuries from the United States, many of them through the Underground Railroad, into Southwestern Ontario, Toronto, and Owen Sound. Black Canadians fought in the War of 1812 and Rebellions of 1837–1838 for the British. Some returned to the United States during the American Civil War or during the Reconstruction era.

References

  1. ↑ Wilson, Bruce G.; Foot, Richard (4 March 2015) [2 April 2009]. "Loyalists". The Canadian Encyclopedia (online ed.). Historica Canada.
  2. ↑ Orkin, Mark M. (2010). "The Name Canada: An Etymological Enigma". In Elaine Gold; Janice McAlpine (eds.). Canadian English: A Linguistic Reader (PDF). Strathy Language Unit, Queen's University. pp. 38–43. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2015.
  3. ↑ Bell, David (2015). American Loyalists to New Brunswick: The ship passenger lists. Formac Publishing Company. p. 7. ISBN   978-1-4595-0399-1.
  4. ↑ Careless, James Maurice Stockford; Tattrie, Jon (24 July 2015) [7 February 2006]. "Responsible Government". The Canadian Encyclopedia (online ed.). Historica Canada . Retrieved 13 November 2017.
  5. ↑ Censuses of Canada 1665 to 1871: Upper Canada & Loyalists (1785 to 1797). Statcan.gc.ca (22 October 2008). Retrieved on 2013-07-24,
  6. ↑ Rees, Ronald. Land of the Loyalists: Their Struggle to Shape the Maritimes, Nimbus, 146 p., 2000, ISBN   1-55109-274-3.
  7. 1 2 "A Short History of the United Empire Loyalists", by Ann Mackenzie, M.A., United Empire Loyalists Association of Canada, accessed 8 February 2010
  8. ↑ E.A. Heaman (2015). A Short History of the State in Canada. U of Toronto Press. p. 74. ISBN   9781442628687.
  9. ↑ Patrick Bode, "Upper Canada, 1793: Simcoe and the Slaves." Beaver 1993 73(3): 17–19
  10. ↑ James W. St. G. Walker, The Black Loyalists, University of Toronto Press (1992) p. 49
  11. ↑ "Black Loyalists in New Brunswick, 1783–1853", Atlantic Canada Portal, University of New Brunswick, accessed 8 February 2010
  12. ↑ Ruth Holmes Whitehead, Black Loyalists: Southern Settlers of Nova Scotia's First Free Black Communities, Halifax: Nimbus Publishing (2013) p. 166
  13. ↑ Wilson, William R. (nd). "Early Canada Historical Narratives: an Act to Prevent the Further Introduction of Slaves". Upper Canada History. Retrieved 10 February 2018.
  14. ↑ Ronald J. Dale (2001). The Invasion of Canada: Battles of the War of 1812. James Lorimer & Company. p. 17. ISBN   1550287389.
  15. ↑ Fraser, Robert Lochiel. "Mallory, Benajah".
  16. ↑ Jones, Elwood H. "Willcocks, Joseph".
  17. ↑ Kaufman, Erik (1997). "Condemned to Rootlessness: The Loyalist Origins of Canada's Identity Crisis". Nationalism and Ethnic Politics. 3 (1): 110–135. doi:10.1080/13537119708428495. S2CID   144562711.
  18. ↑ "Black Loyalists in New Brunswick, 1789–1853", Atlantic Canada Portal, University of New Brunswick, accessed 8 February 2010
  19. ↑ "Visible minority by ethnic or cultural origin: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations with parts". Statistics Canada. 26 October 2022.
  20. ↑ "Canadian Postal Archives Database". data4.collectionscanada.gc.ca. Government of Canada.
  21. ↑ The Godfrey-Milliken Bill – A Canadian response to the Helms–Burton Law, Sam Boskey, 29 October 1996
  22. ↑ Henry Coyne (1904). Memorial to the United Empire Loyalists. Publications of the Niagara Historical Society. p. 30.
  23. ↑ Margaret Conrad and Alvin Finkel, History of the Canadian Peoples: Beginnings to 1867 (vol 1, 2006) p 202.
  24. ↑ Conrad and Finkel, History of the Canadian Peoples: Beginnings to 1867 (vol 1, 2006) p 203.
  25. ↑ "UELAC - United Empire Loyalists' Association of Canada". www.canadahelps.org. CanadaHelps. 2021. Retrieved 17 December 2021.
  26. ↑ "Contact". uelac.ca. The United Empire Loyalists of Canada. Retrieved 17 December 2021.
  27. ↑ "History of the UELAC". uelac.ca. The United Empire Loyalists of Canada. Retrieved 17 December 2021.
  28. ↑ John E Ruch, UE, Hon.FHSC (1990). The Canadian Heraldic Authority and the Loyalists (PDF) (Report). The United Empire Loyalists' Association of Canada.{{cite report}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  29. ↑ "The Coat of Arms of Wainfleet Township". wainfleet.info. Bowhunter Websites. Retrieved 24 July 2013.

Further reading

Historiography

Primary sources

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.