Welwitschia

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Welwitschia
Welwitschia mirabilis(2).jpg
The largest known Welwitschia, nicknamed "The Big Welwitschia", stands 1.4 m (4.6 ft) tall and is over 4 m (13 ft) in diameter
CITES Appendix II (CITES) [1]
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Gymnospermae
Division: Gnetophyta
Class: Gnetopsida
Order: Welwitschiales
Family: Welwitschiaceae
Genus: Welwitschia
Hook.f.
Species:
W. mirabilis
Binomial name
Welwitschia mirabilis
Welwitschia Mirabilis Area of Circulation.png
Welwitschia's range.
Synonyms [2]
  • TumboaWelw. nom. rej.
  • Tumboa bainesiiHook. f. nom. inval.
  • Welwitschia bainesii(Hook. f.) Carrière
  • Tumboa strobiliferaWelw. ex Hook. f. nom. inval.

Welwitschia is a monotypic genus (that is, a genus that contains a single recognised species) of gymnosperm, the sole described species being the distinctive Welwitschia mirabilis, endemic to the Namib desert within Namibia and Angola. Welwitschia is the only extant genus of the family Welwitschiaceae and order Welwitschiales in the division Gnetophyta, and is one of three extant genera in Gnetophyta, alongside Gnetum and Ephedra . Informal sources commonly refer to the plant as a "living fossil". [3] [4]

Contents

Naming

Female cones, from Curtis's Botanical Magazine (1863) Welwitschia mirabilis00.jpg
Female cones, from Curtis's Botanical Magazine (1863)

Welwitschia is named after Austrian botanist and doctor Friedrich Welwitsch, who described the plant in Angola in 1859. Welwitsch was so overwhelmed by the plant that he "could do nothing but kneel down [...] and gaze at it, half in fear lest a touch should prove it a figment of the imagination." [5] [6] Joseph Dalton Hooker of the Linnean Society of London described the species, using Welwitsch's description and collected material along with material from artist Thomas Baines who had independently recorded the plant in Namibia. [7] [8] Welwitsch proposed calling the genus Tumboa after what he believed to be the local name, tumbo. Hooker asked Welwitsch for permission to name the genus Welwitschia instead. Welwitsch concurred and supplied some well-preserved material from which Hooker was able to make substantial progress in determining its botanical affinities. [9]

The taxonomy of Welwitschia subsequently changed intermittently with the development of new classification systems (see Flowering plants: History of classification); however, its current taxonomic status is essentially the same as Hooker's placement. Most botanists have treated Welwitschia as a distinct monotypic genus in a monotypic family or even order. Most recent systems place Welwitschia mirabilis in its own family Welwitschiaceae in the gymnosperm order Gnetales, although other extinct species have been placed in this family. [10] The plant is commonly known simply as welwitschia in English, but the name tree tumbo is also used. It is called kharos or khurub in Nama, tweeblaarkanniedood ('two leaves; can't die') in Afrikaans, nyanka in Damara, and onyanga in Herero.

Biology

After germination, the seedling produces two cotyledons which grow to 25–35 mm (0.98–1.38 in) in length, and have reticulate venation. [11] Subsequently, two foliage leaves are produced at the edge of a woody bilobed crown. The permanent leaves are opposite (at right angles to the cotyledons), amphistomatic (producing stomata on both sides of the leaf), parallel-veined and ribbon-shaped. Shortly after the appearance of the foliage leaves, the apical meristem dies and meristematic activity is transferred to the periphery of the crown. [12]

The two (rarely three) foliage leaves grow continuously from a basal meristem around the circumference of the trunk, reaching lengths up to 4 m (13 ft). The tips of the leaves split and fray into several well-separated strap-shaped sections by the distortions of the woody portions surrounding the apical slit, and also by wind and adventitious external injuries. [12] [13] The largest specimens (such as the "Husab Giant" which is five meters in circumference (about five feet in diameter)) [12] : 25  may be no more than 1.5 m (4.9 ft) tall above ground, but the circumference of the leaves in contact with the sand may exceed 8 m (26 ft). [14]

Welwitschia has an elongated shallow root system consisting of "a tapering taproot with one or more non-tapering extensions, some pronounced lateral roots, and a network of delicate spongy roots" [14] and a woody fibrous unbranched main stem. [12] The roots extend to a depth roughly equal to the span of the living leaves from tip to tip. [12] The main stem consists of an unbranched woody crown roughly shaped like an inverted cone. [15] The only branching in the shoot system occurs in the reproductive branches, which bear strobili.

The species is dioecious, with separate male and female plants. Fertilization is carried out by insects including flies and true bugs. The most common of the true bugs attending Welwitschia is a member of the family Pyrrhocoridae, Probergrothius angolensis , but a hypothesized role in pollination has so far not been demonstrated. Infrequently, wasps and bees also play a role as pollinators of Welwitschia. At least some of the pollinators are attracted by "nectar" produced on both male and female strobili. [16]

Welwitschia has been classified as a CAM plant (crassulacean acid metabolism) after reconciliation of some initially contradictory and confusing data. [17] [18] There are however some very puzzling aspects to the matter; for example, the employment of the CAM metabolism is very slight, which was part of the reason that it took so long to establish its presence at all; it is not understood why this should be.

The age of individual plants is difficult to assess, but many plants may be over 1,000 years old. Some individuals may be more than 2,000 years old. [12] As the species does not produce yearly rings, plant age is determined by radiocarbon dating. [19] However, other reports suggest that the plant does produce a kind of yearly ring. [8] The "trunk" continues to expand with age. The largest known is 9 ft 1 in (2.77 m) in diameter (8.7 m (29 ft) in circumference). [12]

Because Welwitschia only produces a single pair of foliage leaves, the plant was thought by some to be neotenic, consisting essentially of a "giant seedling." However, research showed that its anatomy is not consistent with the giant seedling idea. Instead, the plant is more accurately thought to achieve its unusual morphology as a result of having "lost its head" (apical meristem) at an early stage. [20]

Genetics

In July 2021, the genome of Welwitschia was 98% sequenced, totaling 6.8 Gb on 21 chromosomes. There is evidence of a whole genome duplication followed by extensive reshuffling, probably caused by extreme stress due to a time of increased aridity and prolonged drought some 86 million years ago. As a result of this duplication, the genome contains more "junk" self-replicating DNA sequences. This increase in retrotransposon activity was counteracted with a silencing DNA methylation process allowing to lower the metabolic cost of such a large genetic material and improve resilience. [21] [22]

Distribution and habitat

W. mirabilis is endemic to the desert bordering the Angolan and Namibian coast, between 4.8 km (3.0 mi) and 149 km (93 mi) inland, and from 14.12°S, near the Bentiaba River in Angola, to 23.64°S, near the Kuiseb River in Namibia, a distance of 1,096 km (681 mi). [23] The area is arid; the coast is recorded as having almost zero rainfall, while less than 100 mm (3.9 in) of rain falls annually below the escarpment in the wet season from February to April. [24] Populations tend to occur in ephemeral watercourses, indicating a dependence on groundwater in addition to precipitation from fog. [25]

Cultivation

Welwitschia mirabilis grows readily from seed, which may be bought from specialty seed dealers. The seeds have been shown to display orthodox seed behavior, which in general means that they may be stored for long periods at suitably low humidity and temperature. Welwitschia seeds naturally develop suitably low water concentrations as they ripen. [26] Removal of the outer seed coverings enhances germination performance, which suggests that the seeds may display non-deep physiological dormancy. [26] On planting the seed it is necessary to keep it moist but not immersed in water for the first two weeks of cultivation; it has been suggested that soaking the seeds in water before planting interferes with germination. [26]

Seeds collected from the wild often are heavily contaminated with spores of the fungus Aspergillus niger var. phoenicis, [27] which causes them to rot shortly after they germinate. The fungal inoculum infects the growing cones of W. mirabilis early during their development, and a sharp increase in infection occurs when the pollination drops appear; through those drops the fungal spores may gain access to the interior of the developing seed. [28] Seeds in the wild may therefore be obliterated through fungal action even before they are fully developed. Seeds from botanical gardens or other cultivated sources are much cleaner and less likely to rot. The fungicide tebuconazole may be useful in controlling limited A. niger seed infection. [28]

As food

Indigenous people eat the cone of this plant by eating it raw or baking it in hot ashes. One of its names, onyanga, translates to 'onion of the desert'. [29] [30]

Conservation

The population of Welwitschia mirabilis in the wild is reasonably satisfactory at present. The international trade in the plant is controlled under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). [1] Plants in Angola are better protected than those in Namibia, because the relatively high concentration of land mines in Angola keep collectors away. [6]

Although Welwitschia mirabilis is not at present immediately threatened, there being abundant populations over a large area, its status is far from secure; its recruitment and growth rates are low, and its range, though wide, covers only a single compact, ecologically limited and vulnerable area. The remarkable longevity of Welwitschia favours its survival of temporary periods adverse to reproduction, but it offers no protection against circumstances of direct threat, such as overgrazing and disease. Fungal infection of female cones severely reduces seed viability, reducing already inherently low recruitment. Other threats include injury from off-road vehicles, collection of wild plants and overgrazing by zebras, rhinos, and domestic animals. [6]

Heraldry

The plant figures in the compartment of the national coat of arms of Namibia.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seed</span> Embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering

In botany, a seed is a plant embryo and nutrient reserve enclosed in a seed coat, a protective outer covering called a testa. More generally, the term "seed" means anything that can be sown, which may include seed and husk or tuber. Seeds are the product of the ripened ovule, after the embryo sac is fertilized by sperm from pollen, forming a zygote. The embryo within a seed develops from the zygote and grows within the mother plant to a certain size before growth is halted.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cotyledon</span> Embryonic leaf first appearing from a germinating seed

A cotyledon is a "seed leaf" – a significant part of the embryo within the seed of a plant – and is formally defined as "the embryonic leaf in seed-bearing plants, one or more of which are the first to appear from a germinating seed." Botanists use the number of cotyledons present as one characteristic to classify the flowering plants (angiosperms): species with one cotyledon are called monocotyledonous ("monocots"); plants with two embryonic leaves are termed dicotyledonous ("dicots").

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conifer</span> Group of cone-bearing seed plants

Conifers are a group of cone-bearing seed plants, a subset of gymnosperms. Scientifically, they make up the division Pinophyta, also known as Coniferophyta or Coniferae. The division contains a single extant class, Pinopsida. All extant conifers are perennial woody plants with secondary growth. The great majority are trees, though a few are shrubs. Examples include cedars, Douglas-firs, cypresses, firs, junipers, kauri, larches, pines, hemlocks, redwoods, spruces, and yews. As of 2002, Pinophyta contained seven families, 60 to 65 genera, and more than 600 living species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Namib</span> Desert in Southern Africa

The Namib is a coastal desert in Southern Africa. According to the broadest definition, the Namib stretches for more than 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) along the Atlantic coasts of Angola, Namibia, and northwest South Africa, extending southward from the Carunjamba River in Angola, through Namibia and to the Olifants River in Western Cape, South Africa. The Namib's northernmost portion, which extends 450 kilometres (280 mi) from the Angola-Namibia border, is known as Moçâmedes Desert, while its southern portion approaches the neighboring Kalahari Desert. From the Atlantic coast eastward, the Namib gradually ascends in elevation, reaching up to 200 kilometres (120 mi) inland to the foot of the Great Escarpment. Annual precipitation ranges from 2 millimetres (0.079 in) in the aridest regions to 200 millimetres (7.9 in) at the escarpment, making the Namib the only true desert in southern Africa. Having endured arid or semi-arid conditions for roughly 55–80 million years, the Namib may be the oldest desert in the world and contains some of the world's driest regions, with only western South America's Atacama Desert to challenge it for age and aridity benchmarks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Germination</span> Growth of an organism from a seed or spore

Germination is the process by which an organism grows from a seed or spore. The term is applied to the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm or gymnosperm, the growth of a sporeling from a spore, such as the spores of fungi, ferns, bacteria, and the growth of the pollen tube from the pollen grain of a seed plant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gnetophyta</span> Division of plants containing three genera of gymnosperms

Gnetophyta is a division of plants, grouped within the gymnosperms, that consists of some 70 species across the three relict genera: Gnetum, Welwitschia, and Ephedra. The earliest unambiguous records of the group date to the Jurassic, and they achieved their highest diversity during the Early Cretaceous. The primary difference between gnetophytes and other gymnosperms is the presence of vessel elements, a system of small tubes (xylem) that transport water within the plant, similar to those found in flowering plants. Because of this, gnetophytes were once thought to be the closest gymnosperm relatives to flowering plants, but more recent molecular studies have brought this hypothesis into question, with many recent phylogenies finding them to be nested within the conifers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gymnosperm</span> Clade of non-flowering, naked-seeded vascular plants

The gymnosperms are a group of woody, perennial seed-producing plants, typically lacking the protective outer covering which surrounds the seeds in flowering plants, that include conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and gnetophytes, forming the clade Gymnospermae The term gymnosperm comes from the composite word in Greek: γυμνόσπερμος, and literally means 'naked seeds'. The name is based on the unenclosed condition of their seeds. The non-encased condition of their seeds contrasts with the seeds and ovules of flowering plants (angiosperms), which are enclosed within an ovary. Gymnosperm seeds develop either on the surface of scales or leaves, which are often modified to form cones, or on their own as in yew, Torreya, and Ginkgo.

<i>Araucaria</i> Genus of evergreen conifers in the family Araucariaceae

Araucaria is a genus of evergreen coniferous trees in the family Araucariaceae. While today they are largely confined to the Southern Hemisphere, during the Jurassic and Cretaceous they were globally distributed. There are 20 extant species in New Caledonia, eastern Australia, New Guinea, Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Uruguay.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Friedrich Welwitsch</span> Austrian botanist and explorer (1806–1872)

Friedrich Martin Josef Welwitsch was an Austrian explorer and botanist who in Angola was the first European to describe the plant Welwitschia mirabilis. His report received wide attention among the botanists and general public, comparable only to the discovery of two other plants in the 19th century, namely Victoria amazonica and Rafflesia arnoldii.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conifer cone</span> Reproductive organ on conifers

A conifer cone, or in formal botanical usage a strobilus, pl.: strobili, is a seed-bearing organ on gymnosperm plants, especially in conifers and cycads. They are usually woody and variously conic, cylindrical, ovoid, to globular, and have scales and bracts arranged around a central axis, but can be fleshy and berry-like. The cone of Pinophyta contains the reproductive structures. The woody cone is the female cone, which produces seeds. The male cone, which produces pollen, is usually ephemeral and much less conspicuous even at full maturity. The name "cone" derives from Greek konos, which also gave name to the geometric cone. The individual plates of a cone are known as scales. In conifers where the cone develops over more than one year, the first year's growth of a seed scale on the cone, showing up as a protuberance at the end of the two-year-old scale, is called an umbo, while the second year's growth is called the apophysis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kaokoveld</span> Desert ecoregion in Angola and Namibia

The Kaokoveld Desert is a coastal desert of northern Namibia and southern Angola.

<i>Passiflora ligularis</i> Species of plant

Passiflora ligularis, commonly known as the sweet granadilla or grenadia, is a plant species in the genus Passiflora. It is known as granadilla in Bolivia, Colombia, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico, The Azores, South Africa, and Peru, granadilla común in Guatemala, granadilla de China or parcha dulce in Venezuela, maracuja doce in Brazil, and granaditta in Jamaica.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Welwitschiaceae</span> Family of plants

Welwitschiaceae is a family of plants of the order Gnetales with one living species, Welwitschia mirabilis, found in southwestern Africa. Three fossil genera have been recovered from the Crato Formation – late Aptian strata located in the Araripe Basin in northeastern Brazil, with one of these also being known from the early Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian-Turonian) Akrabou Formation of Morocco.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Serotiny</span> Seed release in response to environment

Serotiny in botany simply means 'following' or 'later'.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Iona National Park</span> National park in Angola

Iona National Park is the largest and oldest national park in Angola. It is situated in the Southwestern corner of the country, in Namibe Province. It is roughly bound by the Atlantic Ocean to the West, an escarpment to the East that marks the beginning of the interior plateau, the Curoca River to the North, and the Cunene River to the South. It is about 200 kilometres (120 mi) south of the city of Namibe and covers 5,850 square miles (15,200 km2) sq. miles.

<i>Acanthosicyos horridus</i> Species of melon

Acanthosicyos horridus is an unusual melon that is endemic to the Namib desert. In English it is known as Nara, butter-nuts, or butterpips; in one of the Khoisan languages it is locally called ǃnaras or ǃnara.

The Moçâmedes Desert is a desert located in the deep southwest of Angola, near the border with Namibia. The desert forms the northern tip of the Namib Desert. From the Atlantic Ocean in the west, the desert gradually rises to a semiarid plain where African ironwood trees grow. Few people live in the desert; communities are found mainly in small fishing towns on the coast. The unique tumboa, a desert plant with a short, wide trunk and two gigantic leaves that can survive for a century, is endemic to the desert. Little water is present in the desert surface.

<i>Araucaria mirabilis</i> Extinct species of conifer

Araucaria mirabilis is an extinct species of coniferous tree from Patagonia, Argentina. It belongs to the genus Araucaria.

The Pavilhão Welwitschia Mirabilis is a state-owned multisports indoor arena located in Moçâmedes, Angola. The 3072-seat arena, features hardwood flooring, electronic scoreboard and a wide range of features that makes it one of the most modern of its kind in Africa. was built to host the 2013 World Roller Hockey World Championship alongside the Pavilhão Multiusos de Luanda. It is fit for such sports as Basketball, Handball, Volleyball and Roller Hockey.

<i>Probergrothius angolensis</i> Species of true bug

Probergrothius angolensis, sometimes known as the Welwitschia bug, is a species of true bug found in the Namib desert and nearby regions.

References

  1. 1 2 "Appendices". Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Retrieved 14 October 2022.
  2. ↑ Tropicos, Welwitschia mirabilis and Topicos Tumboa Welw.
  3. ↑ Flowering Plants of Africa 57:2-8(2001)
  4. ↑ A. Lewington & E. Parker (1999). Ancient Trees: Trees that Live for a Thousand Years. Collins & Brown Ltd. ISBN   1-85585-704-9.
  5. ↑ Trimen, Henry (1873). Friedrich Welwitsch. United Kingdom: Ranken and Company. p. 7.
  6. 1 2 3 "Welwitschia mirabilis". Plants of the World Online . Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew . Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  7. ↑ Welwitsche, Frederick (1861). "Extract from a letter, addressed to Sir William J. Hooker, on the botany of Benguiela, Mossameded, &C, in Western Africa". Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society. Botany. 5 (20): 182–186. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1861.tb01048.x.
  8. 1 2 Notten, Alice (March 2003). "Welwitschia mirabilis". PlantZAfrica. South African National Biodiversity Institute . Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  9. ↑ Hooker, Joseph Dalton (1863). "On Welwitschia, a new Genus of Gnetaceae". Transactions of the Linnean Society of London. 24 (1): 1–48. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1863.tb00151.x. BHL page 27558549, Pl. I–XIV.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  10. ↑ Stevens, P. F. "Angiosperm Phylogeny (2001 onwards) - Version 9, June 2008". www.mobot.org.
  11. ↑ Singh, V.P. (2006). Gymnosperm (naked seeds plant) : structure and development. Sarup & Sons. p. 576. ISBN   978-8176256711 . Retrieved 24 January 2016.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Bornman, Chris H (1 January 1978). Welwitschia: Paradox of a parched paradise. Cape Town: C Struik. ISBN   9780869770979.
  13. ↑ Armstrong, Wayne P. "Welwitschia and Ephedra". Wayne's Word. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
  14. 1 2 Bornman, Chris H; Elsworthy, Janet A; Butler, Valerie; Botha, C E J (1 January 1972). "Welwitschia mirabilis: observations on general habit, seed, seedling, and leaf characteristics". Madoqua Series II. 1 (1): 53–66. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  15. ↑ "From Solitaire to Walvis Bay - Namibia". Welwitschia Mirabilis, Welwitschia Plain, Namibia - Yair Karelic Photography. www.yairkarelic.com. Retrieved 2020-05-28.
  16. ↑ Wetschnig W, Depisch B (1999). "[Chrysomya albiceps Pollination biology of Welwitschia mirabilis HOOK. f. (Welwitschiaceae, Gnetopsida)]" (PDF). Phyton: Annales Rei Botanicae. 39: 167.
  17. ↑ Eller, B M; von Willert, D J; Brinckmann, E; Baasch, R (August 1983). "Ecophysiological studies on Welwitschia mirabilis in the Namib desert". South African Journal of Botany . 2 (3): 209–223. doi: 10.1016/S0022-4618(16)30110-3 . Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  18. ↑ von Willert, Dieter J; Armbrüster, Nicole; Drees, Tobias; Zaborowski, Maik (27 May 2005). "Welwitschia mirabilis: CAM or not CAM - what is the answer?" . Functional Plant Biology . 32 (5). CSIRO: 389–395. doi:10.1071/FP01241. PMID   32689141 . Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  19. ↑ Earle, Christopher J., ed. (2018). "Welwitschia mirabilis". The Gymnosperm Database. Retrieved 21 July 2023. Although Welwitschia produces no growth rings, radiocarbon dating is feasible and results have indicated maximum ages in excess of 1,500 years.
  20. ↑ Martens, P. (4 September 1977). "Welwitschia mirabilis and Neoteny". American Journal of Botany. 64 (7): 916–920. doi:10.2307/2442386. JSTOR   2442386.
  21. ↑ Wan, Tao; Liu, Zhiming; Leitch, Ilia J.; Xin, Haiping; Maggs-Kölling, Gillian; Gong, Yanbing; Li, Zhen; Marais, Eugene; Liao, Yiying; Dai, Can; Liu, Fan (2021-07-12). "The Welwitschia genome reveals a unique biology underpinning extreme longevity in deserts". Nature Communications. 12 (1): 4247. Bibcode:2021NatCo..12.4247W. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-24528-4. hdl: 1854/LU-8715697 . ISSN   2041-1723. PMC   8275611 . PMID   34253727.
  22. ↑ Sima, Richard (2021-07-31). "A Plant That 'Cannot Die' Reveals Its Genetic Secrets". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 2021-08-03.
  23. ↑ Jürgens, Norbert; Oncken, Imke; Oldeland, Jens; Gunter, Felicitas; Rudolph, Barbara (27 January 2021). "Welwitschia: Phylogeography of a living fossil, diversified within a desert refuge". Scientific Reports. 11 (1) 2385 (2021): 2385. Bibcode:2021NatSR..11.2385J. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-81150-6 . PMC   7840819 . PMID   33504814.
  24. ↑ van Wyk, Abraham E; Smith, Gideon F (30 September 2001). Regions of Floristic Endemism in Southern Africa: A Review with Emphasis on Succulents. Hatfield, South Africa: Umdaus Press. ISBN   9781919766188.
  25. ↑ Henschel, Joh R; Seeley, Mary K (October 2000). "Long-term growth patterns of Welwitschia mirabilis, a long-lived plant of the Namib Desert (including a bibliography)" . Plant Ecology. 150 (1): 7–26. doi:10.1023/A:1026512608982. S2CID   7760078 . Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  26. 1 2 3 Whitaker, C; Berjak, P; Kolberg, H; Pammenter, N W; Bornman, C H (October 2004). "Responses to various manipulations, and storage potential, of seeds of the unique desert gymnosperm, Welwitschia mirabilis Hook. fil". South African Journal of Botany . 70 (4): 622–630. doi: 10.1016/S0254-6299(15)30201-5 .
  27. ↑ Cooper-Driver, Gillian A; Wagner, Christopher; Kolberg, Herta (October 2000). "Patterns of Aspergillus niger var. phoenicis (Corda) Al-Musallam infection in Namibian populations of Welwitschia mirabilis Hook.f." . Journal of Arid Environments. 46 (2): 181–198. Bibcode:2000JArEn..46..181C. doi:10.1006/jare.2000.0660 . Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  28. 1 2 Whitaker, C; Pammenter, N W; Berjak, P (January 2008). "Infection of the cones and seeds of Welwitschia mirabilis by Aspergillus niger var. phoenicis in the Namib-Naukluft Park". South African Journal of Botany . 74 (1): 41–50. doi: 10.1016/j.sajb.2007.08.008 .
  29. ↑ "Rare and Endangered Plant Spotlights". United States Botanic Garden . Retrieved 21 July 2023. The plant's common name is onyanga, which means "onion of the desert."
  30. ↑ "Welwitschia Facts". www.softschools.com. Retrieved 2022-03-12.
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