The 1867 Manhattan earthquake struck Riley County, Kansas, in the United States on April 24, 1867, at 20:22 UTC, or about 14:30 local time. The strongest earthquake to originate in the state, it measured 5.1 on a seismic scale that is based on an isoseismal map or the event's felt area. The earthquake's epicenter was near the town of Manhattan.
The earthquake had a maximum perceived intensity of VII (Very strong) on the Mercalli intensity scale. It caused minor damage, reports of which were confined to Kansas, Iowa, and Missouri, according to the United States Geological Survey. Felt over an area of 200,000 square miles (520,000km2), the earthquake reached the states of Indiana, Illinois, and possibly Ohio, though the latter reports have been questioned.
Manhattan is near the Nemaha Ridge, a long anticline structure that is bounded by several faults. The nearby Humboldt Fault Zone in particular poses a threat to the city. Kansas is not known for earthquake activity, but an earthquake could occur at any time. A 2016 hazard map from the United States Geological Survey estimated a 1% or lower risk for a major earthquake in Kansas for the following year, though scientists from the agency think an earthquake of magnitude 7.0 remains possible.
The earthquake's epicenter was near Manhattan, Kansas, a town just off the confluence of the Kansas River and the Big Blue River.[2] Manhattan lies near the Nemaha Ridge, an anticline and 300‑million-year-old Precambrian granite range bounded by faults, which likely produced the earthquake.[3] It hosts the Humboldt Fault Zone, which, in addition to serving as the range's easternmost boundary, has produced a large portion of the state's earthquakes.[2] A normal, or dip-slip fault,[4] it is responsible for at least several small tremors smaller than magnitude 2.7 each year.[2] The fault cuts through Permian rock. Despite being previously thought to be a simple, Precambrian structure, according to the Geological Society of America, it may be a complex fault.[5]
The Nemaha Range lies roughly 50 miles (80km) east of the Midcontinent rift, which forms a layer of basaltic rock about 1.1billion years old. This rift extends northward to Lake Superior and the surrounding area and southward to Kansas, then terminates abruptly.[6] Also present in the state is the Central Kansas Uplift, the faults of which produced several small earthquakes during the late 1980s. According to United States Geological Survey geophysicist Don Steeples, earthquakes at the Humboldt Zone have decreased, and activity at the Uplift was increasing as of the 1980s.[7]
Felt over an area of 193,000 square miles (500,000km2), with other sources listing the felt area as 300,000 square miles (780,000km2)[8] or 95,000 square miles (250,000km2),[9] the 1867 earthquake followed the Midcontinent seismic trend:[1] unlike coastal earthquakes in the United States, events in the central and east-central sectors of the country are spread out over extensive areas. This occurs as a result of the region's stiff soil, and because earthquakes in Kansas tend to occur at a shallow depth.[3] The 1867 Manhattan earthquake remains the largest earthquake to originate in the state,[10] though at least 25 have taken place since,[2] including another powerful earthquake 10 miles (16km) north of Manhattan in Pottawatomie County.[11] In 2016, a magnitude 5.1 earthquake with an epicenter in Oklahoma shook the Manhattan area.[12] According to a report in the Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, the frequency of moderately strong earthquakes within the state is between 40 and 45 years.[13] One study found that between December 1977 and June 1989, more than 100 earthquakes were recognized by a seismograph network. All were between 4.0 and 0.8 on the Richter scale.[14]
Damage and casualties
Originating at 20:22 UTC, or around 2:30 local time,[15] the earthquake was assigned a maximum Mercalli intensity scale of VII, considered "very strong". Minor damage occurred throughout the geographical region, including 22 counties in Kansas,[16] and injuries were reported as well. The earthquake fractured walls, downed chimneys, and otherwise damaged structures, even loosening stones.[1] Within the epicentral area near Manhattan, clocks stopped, people felt electrical shocks and inhabitants were frightened. The following day, an aftershock occurred between 3 and 4 a.m.[17] Damage within Manhattan and a number of other communities may have been exacerbated by their location within alluvial valleys.[18]
At a farm 3 miles (4.8km) south of the city of Wamego, the earthquake caused liquefaction of the ground.[19] To the north of Wamego, in the city of Louisville, the earthquake knocked over horses.[20] In both Louisville and the city of Leavenworth, chimneys fell;[1] in Paola, the earthquake destroyed one wall of a large Republican newspaper office building.[21] Waves were observed on the Kansas River, reaching 2.0 feet (0.6m) in height.[1] The city of Atchison felt two shocks, which felled lamps and bottles at a drug store, rocked buildings, and disrupted water flow in rivers and creeks. Though no buildings in the city sustained damage, people fled into the streets.[8]
In Emporia, the earthquake was accompanied by a low rumbling sound, windows rattled, and small boxes were thrown off of shelves as people fled buildings. The city's brick and stone houses sustained more damage than framed homes. The city of Fort Scott only experienced trembling, whereas Iola had houses and tableware shake. In Holton, items were knocked off shelves, and buildings shook. Residents of Irving also heard rumbling prior to the earthquake, experiencing severe tremors that lasted 30 seconds, while buildings in Junction City shook violently, moving several inches. In Kansas City, tables moved, walls cracked, water spilled from glasses, plaster cracked, and the shaking caused general panic.[22]
The city of Lawrence felt three earthquakes within 30 seconds, with violent shaking of doors and windows, broken plaster, a rumbling noise, stones knocked off a local church, rattling of silverware and glassware, and the overturning of a stove in one home. Similarly, in the city of Leavenworth, three shocks were felt over 30 seconds. In Leavenworth, a man was knocked off a hayload, a rumbling noise was heard, and clocks stopped. Moreover, saws leaning against walls were moved 6 inches (15cm), plaster at one home cracked for the entire length of the house's ceiling, and one woman experienced an electrical shock from spring water.[17] In the city of Lecompton, one of the buildings at Lane University shook, and a high school in the city of Marysville also shook violently.[17]
Within Montgomery County, people in moving vehicles did not feel the earthquake.[21] Houses shook in Mound City, Ottawa, and Olathe, as well as in the city of Oskaloosa, where the cupola (a relatively small, most often dome-like, tall structure) of a new school wobbled. In Paola, people standing were nearly knocked over during the earthquake.[21] A train on the Pacific Railroad in Solomon shook violently, and was stopped and evacuated out of fear that its boiler would explode. In Topeka, the capital city of Kansas, the ceiling of a Methodist church was bent, and nearly all of the windows in one schoolhouse were destroyed.[23] Two shocks were felt in the city of White Cloud, and sleeping people were awakened in Wyandotte County.[18]
Reports from the states of Iowa and Missouri, including descriptions of fallen plaster in Dubuque, shaking of buildings and people in rocking chairs in Des Moines, and fallen and cracked plaster in Chillicothe,[8] complement additional reports of fallen plaster and roof shingles, damaged wells, and cracked walls.[1] Other events reported in Dubuque included three shocks, which caused vibration of gas burners; general panic among residents; rattling of windows; shaking of chairs, cases holding newspapers, and windows; and holes in brick walls.[24] In the city of St. Joseph in Missouri, the windows broke, women fainted, and a rumbling noise could be heard. Within the city, a new school building's brick walls cracked several feet above the ground as people fled into the streets.[23] In Warrensburg, Missouri, the walls of a church shook, but there was no damage.[18] The earthquake also extended into the states of Indiana and Illinois, according to the United States Geological Survey,[1] and a questionable report came from Carthage in Ohio that a segment of the ground, 1 acre (0.40ha) in area, sunk by 10 feet (3.0m), forming a perpendicular wall 10-foot (3.0m) deep on each of its sides.[9]
A series of articles published by the Chicago Tribune describes the extent of the damage throughout the state of Kansas. The article "At Kansas City" details that the earthquake jolted homes with a sudden burst, giving off a resonating roar like thunder.[15] The Tribune observed in its article "At Leavenworth, Kansas" that the earthquake was completely unexpected, describing the event as "[...] sudden in its coming and departure." It confirmed that earthquakes were not common in earlier times and stated that "all were more or less startled, and, indeed, frightened."[25]
Future threats
The Tuttle Creek dam and reservoir in Kansas as seen from the west
Although Kansas is not seismically active, a strong earthquake could pose significant threats to the state. If an earthquake were to occur, it would likely be along the Nemaha Ridge, which is still active.[13] The Humboldt Fault Zone, just off the Ridge, lies just 12 miles (19km) east of the Tuttle Creek Reservoir near Manhattan. An earthquake there would likely destroy the dam, releasing 300,000 feet (91,440m) of water per second and flooding the nearby area, which would threaten roughly 13,000 people and 5,900 homes. The United States Army Corps of Engineers concluded that a moderate earthquake "between 5.7 and 6.6 would cause sand underneath the dam to liquefy into quicksand, causing the dam to spread out and the top to drop up to three feet."[2] A large earthquake would spawn gaps, forcing water to leak and eventually cause the dam to collapse. Earthquakes that could pose a threat to the dam occur on a cycle of roughly 1,800 years. To counter this threat, the Corps of Engineers has galvanized an effort to strengthen the dam. Replacing the sand (which could shift during an earthquake) with more than 350 walls, the group has equipped the dam with sensors, which are connected to alarms that would alert nearby citizens to the earthquake.[2]
More than 500 earthquakes have been measured in the state since 2013, contributing to the reactivation of ancient fault lines. In 2016, the United States Geological Survey made hazard maps for the state, determining a 1% or lower risk of a major earthquake within the next year. Because Sedgwick County and Wichita could both potentially experience shaking from earthquakes that could not be withstood according to existing building codes, officials in the area proposed changing building codes to meet perceived hazards. Scientists at the United States Geological Survey think an earthquake with a magnitude of 7.0 remains possible, possibly originating from the Nemaha Ridge where the Manhattan quake was produced.[3]
An earthquake – also called a quake, tremor, or temblor – is the shaking of the Earth's surface resulting from a sudden release of energy in the lithosphere that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes can range in intensity, from those so weak they cannot be felt, to those violent enough to propel objects and people into the air, damage critical infrastructure, and wreak destruction across entire cities. The seismic activity of an area is the frequency, type, and size of earthquakes experienced over a particular time. The seismicity at a particular location in the Earth is the average rate of seismic energy release per unit volume.
The New Madrid seismic zone (NMSZ), sometimes called the New Madrid fault line, is a major seismic zone and a prolific source of intraplate earthquakes in the Southern and Midwestern United States, stretching to the southwest from New Madrid, Missouri.
The 1886 Charleston earthquake in South Carolina occurred about 9:50 p.m. local time August 31. It caused 60 deaths and $5–6 million in damage to 2,000 buildings in the Southeastern United States. It is one of the most powerful and damaging earthquakes to hit the East Coast of the United States.
The Humboldt Fault or Humboldt Fault Zone, is a normal fault or series of faults, that extends from Nebraska southwestwardly through most of Kansas.
The 1909 Wabash River earthquake occurred at 04:45 local time on September 27 with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VII. It measured 5.1 on a seismic scale that is based on an isoseismal map or the event's felt area. With moderate damage in the Wabash River Valley, it is currently the strongest earthquake recorded in the U.S. state of Indiana. The earthquake occurred somewhere along a fault within the Wabash Valley seismic zone.
The 1975 Morris earthquake occurred in western Minnesota on July 9 at 14:54:15 UTC, or 9:54 a.m. local time. The strongest instrumentally recorded rupture in the history of the state, it registered at magnitude 4.6 Mn and had a maximum Mercalli intensity of VI (Strong). It was the first earthquake to be recorded on any seismic instrument in the state since 1917. Tremors were felt over much of Minnesota, northern Iowa, and the eastern Dakotas.
In the early morning hours of August 16, 1931, a powerful earthquake occurred in West Texas with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe). Estimates of its magnitude range between 5.8 and 6.4 mb, making it the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in Texas history. Its epicenter was near the town of Valentine, Texas; there, the earthquake caused damage to many homes and buildings. The earthquake may have been caused by movement along oblique-slip faulting in West Texas, the most seismically active region in the state. Shaking from the earthquake was perceptible within a 400 mi (640 km) radius of the epicenter, affecting four U.S. states and northern Mexico. Several foreshocks and aftershocks accompanied the primary temblor, with the aftershocks continuing until at least November 3, 1931. The main earthquake caused no fatalities, though several people sustained minor injuries; the damage in Valentine amounted to $50,000–$75,000.
The 1968 Illinois earthquake was the largest recorded earthquake in the U.S. Midwestern state of Illinois. Striking at 11:02 a.m. on November 9, it measured 5.3 on the Richter scale. Although no fatalities occurred, the event caused considerable structural damage to buildings, including the toppling of chimneys and shaking in Chicago, the region's largest city. The earthquake was one of the most widely felt in U.S. history, largely affecting 23 states over an area of 580,000 sq mi (1,500,000 km2). In studying its cause, scientists discovered the Cottage Grove Fault in the Southern Illinois Basin.
The 1916 Irondale earthquake struck in the north-central region of the U.S. state of Alabama on October 18. The strongest earthquake in state history, it registered an estimated Richter scale magnitude of 5.1 and resulted in minor damage. Damage was limited to Shelby and Jefferson counties and reached its maximum severity near the epicenter in the city of Irondale, including cracked windows, fallen chimneys, and dried-up wells. While there were no fatalities, the earthquake spawned widespread panic, prompting alarmed workers to evacuate tall buildings.
On August 23, 2011, a magnitude 5.8 earthquake hit the Piedmont region of the U.S. state of Virginia at 1:51:04 p.m. EDT. The epicenter, in Louisa County, was 38 mi (61 km) northwest of Richmond and 5 mi (8 km) south-southwest of the town of Mineral. It was an intraplate earthquake with a maximum perceived intensity of VIII (Severe) on the Mercalli intensity scale. Several aftershocks, ranging up to 4.5 Mw in magnitude, occurred after the main tremor.
The 1991 Sierra Madre earthquake occurred on June 28 at 07:43:55 local time with a moment magnitude of 5.6 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VII. The thrust earthquake resulted in two deaths, around 100 injuries, and damage estimated at $33.5–40 million. The event occurred beneath the San Gabriel Mountains on the Clamshell–Sawpit Fault, which is a part of the Sierra Madre–Cucamonga Fault System. Instruments captured the event at a number of strong motion stations in Southern California.
The 1979 Coyote Lake earthquake occurred at 10:05:24 local time on August 6 with a moment magnitude of 5.7 and a maximum Mercalli Intensity of VII. The shock occurred on the Calaveras Fault near Coyote Lake in Santa Clara County, California and resulted in a number of injuries, including some that required hospitalization. Most of the $500,000 in damage that was caused was non-structural, but several businesses were closed for repairs. Data from numerous strong motion instruments was used to determine the type, depth, and extent of slip. A non-destructive aftershock sequence that lasted throughout the remainder of the month was of interest to seismologists, especially with regard to fault creep, and following the event local governments evaluated their response to the incident.
The 1957 San Francisco earthquake occurred on March 22 at 11:44:22 local time with a moment magnitude of 5.7 and a maximum Mercalli Intensity of VII. It was located just off the San Francisco Peninsula near the San Andreas Fault and was felt in a limited portion of Northern and Central California. There was a non-destructive foreshock and aftershock sequence that lasted for several months. With financial losses of around US$1 million, damage was considered minimal, with one death and forty injuries.
The 1934 Hansel Valley earthquake occurred on March 12 at approximately 8:05 a.m. MST with a moment magnitude of 6.6 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe). The shock originated in the Hansel Valley at the north end of the Great Salt Lake in Utah in the United States. Damage was mostly confined to vulnerable buildings, and two people died. The dip-slip (normal) fault that generated the shock ruptured the surface of the ground and other geologic features were documented. A large aftershock occurred three hours after the initial event and may have caused additional damage.
In 1954, the state of Nevada was struck by a series of earthquakes that began with three magnitude 6.0+ events in July and August that preceded the Mw 7.1–7.3 mainshock and M 6.9 aftershock, both on December 12. All five earthquakes are among the largest in the state, and the largest since the Cedar Mountain earthquake of 1932 and Pleasant Valley event in 1915. The earthquake was felt throughout much of the western United States.
The 1968 Borrego Mountain earthquake occurred on April 8, at 18:28 PST in the geologically active Salton Trough of Southern California. The Salton Trough represents a pull-apart basin formed by movements along major faults. This region is dominated by major strike-slip faults one of them being the San Jacinto Fault which produced the 1968 earthquake. The mainshock's epicenter was near the unincorporated community of Ocotillo Wells in San Diego County. The moment magnitude (Mw ) 6.6 strike-slip earthquake struck with a focal depth of 11.1 km (6.9 mi). The zone of surface rupture was assigned a maximum Modified Mercalli intensity (MMI) of VII.
An earthquake struck near the Hawaiian island of Lanai on February 19, at 10:11 pm HST with an estimated magnitude of 7.5 on the moment magnitude scale (Mw ). It remains one of the largest seismic event to hit the Hawaiian Islands since the 1868 Kaʻū earthquake, with its effects being felt throughout the entire archipelago. It caused severe damage on the islands of Lanai, Molokai and Maui. A tsunami may have been generated however there are speculations if it had actually happened. Despite the size of the quake and the extent of damage, there were no deaths.
The 1895 Charleston earthquake, also known as the Halloween earthquake, occurred on October 31, at 05:07 CST near Charleston, Missouri. It had an estimated moment magnitude of 5.8–6.6 and evaluated Modified Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe). The earthquake caused substantial property damage in the states of Missouri, Illinois, Ohio, Alabama, Iowa, Kentucky, Indiana, and Tennessee. Shaking was widespread, being felt across 23 states and even in Canada. At least two people died and seven were injured.
The 1882 Fort Collins earthquake or Front Range earthquake measured Mw 6.6 and struck near Fort Collins, Colorado at 1:30 UTC on November 8, which was 18:30 on the November 7. The earthquake occurred as the result of deformation within the Front Range and caused shaking as strong as Modified Mercalli intensity (MMI) VII. Shaking was felt as far away as Salt Lake City, Utah and Salina, Kansas. An aftershock struck locally at 04:45 on November 8 and was felt as far as Laramie, Wyoming and Meeker, Colorado. It is the largest earthquake in Colorado's history.
Stover, C. W.; Coffman, J. L. (1993). Seismicity of the United States, 1568–1989 (Revised): U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1527. United States Government Printing Office.
Wasowski, J.; Giordan, D.; Lollino, P. (2017). Engineering Geology and Geological Engineering for Sustainable Use of the Earth's Resources, Urbanization and Infrastructure Protection from Geohazards: Proceedings of the 1st GeoMEast International Congress and Exhibition, Egypt 2017 on Sustainable Civil Infrastructures. Springer Publishing.
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