Related Research Articles
In physics, statistical mechanics is a mathematical framework that applies statistical methods and probability theory to large assemblies of microscopic entities. Sometimes called statistical physics or statistical thermodynamics, its applications include many problems in the fields of physics, biology, chemistry, neuroscience, computer science, information theory and sociology. Its main purpose is to clarify the properties of matter in aggregate, in terms of physical laws governing atomic motion.
Stereochemistry, a subdiscipline of chemistry, involves the study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms that form the structure of molecules and their manipulation. The study of stereochemistry focuses on the relationships between stereoisomers, which by definition have the same molecular formula and sequence of bonded atoms (constitution), but differ in the geometric positioning of the atoms in space. For this reason, it is also known as 3D chemistry—the prefix "stereo-" means "three-dimensionality".
Josiah Willard Gibbs was an American scientist who made significant theoretical contributions to physics, chemistry, and mathematics. His work on the applications of thermodynamics was instrumental in transforming physical chemistry into a rigorous deductive science. Together with James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann, he created statistical mechanics, explaining the laws of thermodynamics as consequences of the statistical properties of ensembles of the possible states of a physical system composed of many particles. Gibbs also worked on the application of Maxwell's equations to problems in physical optics. As a mathematician, he created modern vector calculus and described the Gibbs phenomenon in the theory of Fourier analysis.
Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff Jr. was a Dutch physical chemist. A highly influential theoretical chemist of his time, van 't Hoff was the first winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. His pioneering work helped found the modern theory of chemical affinity, chemical equilibrium, chemical kinetics, and chemical thermodynamics. In his 1874 pamphlet, van 't Hoff formulated the theory of the tetrahedral carbon atom and laid the foundations of stereochemistry. In 1875, he predicted the correct structures of allenes and cumulenes as well as their axial chirality. He is also widely considered one of the founders of physical chemistry as the discipline is known today.
In physical chemistry, the Arrhenius equation is a formula for the temperature dependence of reaction rates. The equation was proposed by Svante Arrhenius in 1889, based on the work of Dutch chemist Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff who had noted in 1884 that the van 't Hoff equation for the temperature dependence of equilibrium constants suggests such a formula for the rates of both forward and reverse reactions. This equation has a vast and important application in determining the rate of chemical reactions and for calculation of energy of activation. Arrhenius provided a physical justification and interpretation for the formula. Currently, it is best seen as an empirical relationship. It can be used to model the temperature variation of diffusion coefficients, population of crystal vacancies, creep rates, and many other thermally induced processes and reactions. The Eyring equation, developed in 1935, also expresses the relationship between rate and energy.
Johannes Diderik van der Waals was a Dutch theoretical physicist and thermodynamicist famous for his pioneering work on the equation of state for gases and liquids. Van der Waals started his career as a schoolteacher. He became the first physics professor of the University of Amsterdam when in 1877 the old Athenaeum was upgraded to Municipal University. Van der Waals won the 1910 Nobel Prize in physics for his work on the equation of state for gases and liquids.
Chemical kinetics, also known as reaction kinetics, is the branch of physical chemistry that is concerned with understanding the rates of chemical reactions. It is different from chemical thermodynamics, which deals with the direction in which a reaction occurs but in itself tells nothing about its rate. Chemical kinetics includes investigations of how experimental conditions influence the speed of a chemical reaction and yield information about the reaction's mechanism and transition states, as well as the construction of mathematical models that also can describe the characteristics of a chemical reaction.
The year 1874 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.
A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism is a two-volume treatise on electromagnetism written by James Clerk Maxwell in 1873. Maxwell was revising the Treatise for a second edition when he died in 1879. The revision was completed by William Davidson Niven for publication in 1881. A third edition was prepared by J. J. Thomson for publication in 1892.
François-Marie Raoult was a French chemist who conducted research into the behavior of solutions, especially their physical properties.
The Van 't Hoff equation relates the change in the equilibrium constant, Keq, of a chemical reaction to the change in temperature, T, given the standard enthalpy change, ΔrH⊖, for the process. The subscript means "reaction" and the superscript means "standard". It was proposed by Dutch chemist Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff in 1884 in his book Études de Dynamique chimique.
H. W. Bakhuis Roozeboom was a Dutch chemist who studied phase behaviour in physical chemistry.
Hoff may refer to:
Ludwig Ferdinand Wilhelmy was a German scientist who is usually credited with publishing the first quantitative study in chemical kinetics.
Harmon Northrop Morse was an American chemist. Today he is known as the first to have synthesized paracetamol, but this substance only became widely used as a drug decades after Morse's death. In the first half of the 20th century he was best known for his study of osmotic pressure, for which he was awarded the Avogadro Medal in 1916. The Morse equation for estimating osmotic pressure is named after him.
Maxwell’s thermodynamic surface is an 1874 sculpture made by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879). This model provides a three-dimensional space of the various states of a fictitious substance with water-like properties. This plot has coordinates volume (x), entropy (y), and energy (z). It was based on the American scientist Josiah Willard Gibbs’ graphical thermodynamics papers of 1873. The model, in Maxwell's words, allowed "the principal features of known substances [to] be represented on a convenient scale."
Johannes van Laar was a Dutch chemist who is best known for the equations regarding chemical activity.
Van 't Hof and Van 't Hoff are Dutch toponymic surnames meaning "from the homestead". Other variants are Van Hoff, Van den Hof, Van der Hoff, Van't Hof and Vanthof. Notable people with these surnames include:
Cornelis Jacobus (Cor) Gorter was a Dutch experimental and theoretical physicist. Among other work, he discovered paramagnetic relaxation and was a pioneer in low temperature physics.
References
- ↑ "Jacobus Henricus van't Hoff". Science History Institute. June 2016. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
- ↑ Bowden, Mary Ellen (1997). "Jacobus Henricus van't Hoff". Chemical achievers : the human face of the chemical sciences . Philadelphia, PA: Chemical Heritage Foundation. pp. 94–95. ISBN 9780941901123.
- 1 2 Crilly, Tony (2007). 50 Mathematical Ideas you really need to know. London: Quercus. ISBN 978-1-84724-008-8.
- ↑ "Etudes d'un nouveau cercle du plan du triangle". Paper to l'Association française pour l'avancement des sciences.
- ↑ Guggenbuhl, Laura (December 1953). "Henri Brocard and the Geometry of the Triangle". The Mathematical Gazette. 37 (322). London: Mathematical Association: 241–243. doi:10.1017/S0025557200027558. JSTOR 3610034.
- ↑ "Effect of Light on Selenium During the Passage of an Electric Current". Nature . 7 (173): 303. 1873. Bibcode:1873Natur...7R.303.. doi: 10.1038/007303e0 .
- ↑ Clerk-Maxwell, J. (1874). "Van der Waals on the Continuity of the Gaseous and Liquid States" (PDF). Nature. 10 (259): 477–480. Bibcode:1874Natur..10..477C. doi:10.1038/010477a0.
- ↑ Clerk-Maxwell, J. (25 September 1873). "Molecules". Nature. 8 (204): 437–41. Bibcode:1873Natur...8..437.. doi: 10.1038/008437a0 . Also digitised at The Victorian Web. Archived 2012-02-23.
- ↑ Gibbs, J. W. (1873). "A Method of Geometrical Representation of the Thermodynamic Properties of Substances by Means of Surfaces". Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. 2: 382–404.
- ↑ Richardson, Owen (1921). The emission of positive ions by hot metals. ISBN 978-1-929148-10-3 . Retrieved 2009-07-11.
- ↑ "Alice Vickery". www.rpharms.com. Royal Pharmaceutical Society. Archived from the original on 2016-03-07. Retrieved 2013-07-25.
- ↑ Hansen, G. H. A. (1874). "Undersøgelser Angående Spedalskhedens Årsager" [Investigations concerning the etiology of leprosy]. Norsk Mag. Laegervidenskaben (in Norwegian). 4: 1–88.
- ↑ Irgens, L. (2002). "The discovery of the leprosy bacillus". Tidsskr. Nor. Laegeforen. 122 (7): 708–9. PMID 11998735.
- ↑ Finger, Stanley (1994). Origins of Neuroscience: a history of explorations into brain function. Oxford University Press. p. 45. ISBN 9780195146943. OCLC 27151391.
In 1873, Golgi published the first brief but "adequate" picture of la reazione nera (the black reaction), which showed the whole nerve cell, including its cell body, axon, and branching dendrites.
- ↑ Rolt, L. T. C. (1965). A Short History of Machine Tools. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. p. 169.
- ↑ "Copley Medal | British scientific award". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 23 July 2020.