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Pyroelectricity is a property of certain crystals which are naturally electrically polarized and as a result contain large electric fields. Pyroelectricity can be described as the ability of certain materials to generate a temporary voltage when they are heated or cooled. The change in temperature modifies the positions of the atoms slightly within the crystal structure, so that the polarization of the material changes. This polarization change gives rise to a voltage across the crystal. If the temperature stays constant at its new value, the pyroelectric voltage gradually disappears due to leakage current. The leakage can be due to electrons moving through the crystal, ions moving through the air, or current leaking through a voltmeter attached across the crystal.
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Tracheal intubation, an invasive medical procedure, is the placement of a flexible plastic catheter into the trachea. For millennia, tracheotomy was considered the most reliable method of tracheal intubation. By the late 19th century, advances in the sciences of anatomy and physiology, as well as the beginnings of an appreciation of the germ theory of disease, had reduced the morbidity and mortality of this operation to a more acceptable rate. Also in the late 19th century, advances in endoscopic instrumentation had improved to such a degree that direct laryngoscopy had finally become a viable means to secure the airway by the non-surgical orotracheal route. Nasotracheal intubation was not widely practiced until the early 20th century. The 20th century saw the transformation of the practices of tracheotomy, endoscopy and non-surgical tracheal intubation from rarely employed procedures to essential components of the practices of anesthesia, critical care medicine, emergency medicine, gastroenterology, pulmonology and surgery.
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References
- ↑ Vinner, Max (2002). Boats of the Viking Ship Museum. Oslo: Viking Ship Museum. ISBN 978-8785180636.
- ↑ Venn, J. (July 1880). "I. On the Diagrammatic and Mechanical Representation of Propositions and Reasonings" (PDF). The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science . 5. 10 (59): 1–18. doi:10.1080/14786448008626877. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-05-16.
- ↑ Sandifer, Ed (2003). "How Euler Did It" (PDF). MAA Online. Mathematical Association of America . Retrieved 2009-10-26.
- ↑ Stein, James D. (2008). How Math Explains the World. New York: Smithsonian Books. pp. 228–31. ISBN 9780061241765.
- ↑ Gamgee, J. S. (1880-01-24). "Absorbent and medicated surgical dressings". The Lancet . 115 (2943): 127–128. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(02)36703-5.
- ↑ Eberth, C. J. (1880-07-01). "Die Organismen in den Organen bei Typhus abdominalis". Archiv für Pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und für Klinische Medicin (in German). 81 (1): 58–74. doi:10.1007/BF01995472. ISSN 0720-8723. S2CID 6979333.
- ↑ Macewen, William (1880-07-24). "Clinical Observations on the Introduction of Tracheal Tubes by the Mouth, Instead of Performing Tracheotomy or Laryngotomy". The British Medical Journal . 2 (1021): 122–4. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.1021.122. JSTOR 25254413. PMC 2241154 . PMID 20749630.; Macewen, William (1880-07-31). "Clinical Observations on the Introduction of Tracheal Tubes by the Mouth, Instead of Performing Tracheotomy or Laryngotomy". BMJ . 2 (1022): 163–5. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.1022.163. JSTOR 25254466. PMC 2241109 . PMID 20749636.
- ↑ Holubar, Karl; Fatovic-Ferencic, Stella. "Moriz Kaposi 1837-1902: a historical reappraisal". Archived from the original on 2007-05-07. Retrieved 2011-03-25.
- ↑ Curie, Jacques; Pierre (1880) "Développement par compression de l’électricité polaire dans les cristaux hémièdres à faces inclinées" [Development, via compression, of electric polarization in hemihedral crystals with inclined faces], Bulletin de la Société minérologique de France3: 90-93. Reprinted in: Curie, Jacques; Pierre (1880) "Développement, par pression, de l’électricité polaire dans les cristaux hémièdres à faces inclinées", Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences 91: 294-295. See also: Curie, Jacques; Pierre (1880) "Sur l’électricité polaire dans les cristaux hémièdres à faces inclinées" [On electric polarization in hemihedral crystals with inclined faces], Comptes rendus91: 383-386.
- ↑ U.S. patent 0,223,898
- ↑ "Brush Arc Lighting". Archived from the original on 2008-07-24.
- ↑ Burke, James (1978). Connections . London: Macmillan. p. 242. ISBN 0-333-24827-9.
- ↑ Boothroyd, David. "Forgotten Hero: The man who invented the two-stroke engine". The VU. Archived from the original on 2004-12-15. Retrieved 2005-01-19.
- ↑ "Copley Medal | British scientific award". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 23 July 2020.