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Cholera is an infection of the small intestine by some strains of the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. Symptoms may range from none, to mild, to severe. The classic symptom is large amounts of watery diarrhea lasting a few days. Vomiting and muscle cramps may also occur. Diarrhea can be so severe that it leads within hours to severe dehydration and electrolyte imbalance. This may result in sunken eyes, cold skin, decreased skin elasticity, and wrinkling of the hands and feet. Dehydration can cause the skin to turn bluish. Symptoms start two hours to five days after exposure.
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff was a German chemist, mathematican and physicist who contributed to the fundamental understanding of electrical circuits, spectroscopy and the emission of black-body radiation by heated objects. He also coined the term black body in 1860.
Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch was a German physician and microbiologist. As the discoverer of the specific causative agents of deadly infectious diseases including tuberculosis, cholera and anthrax, he is regarded as one of the main founders of modern bacteriology. As such he is popularly nicknamed the father of microbiology, and as the father of medical bacteriology. His discovery of the anthrax bacterium in 1876 is considered as the birth of modern bacteriology. Koch used his discoveries to establish that germs "could cause a specific disease" and directly provided proofs for the germ theory of diseases, therefore creating the scientific basis of public health, saving millions of lives. For his life's work Koch is seen as one of the founders of modern medicine.
1884 (MDCCCLXXXIV) was a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar, the 1884th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 884th year of the 2nd millennium, the 84th year of the 19th century, and the 5th year of the 1880s decade. As of the start of 1884, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.
Svante August Arrhenius was a Swedish scientist. Originally a physicist, but often referred to as a chemist, Arrhenius was one of the founders of the science of physical chemistry. In 1903, he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, becoming the first Swedish Nobel laureate. In 1905, he became the director of the Nobel Institute, where he remained until his death.
Vibrio cholerae is a species of Gram-negative, facultative anaerobe and comma-shaped bacteria. The bacteria naturally live in brackish or saltwater where they attach themselves easily to the chitin-containing shells of crabs, shrimp, and other shellfish. Some strains of V. cholerae are pathogenic to humans and cause a deadly disease called cholera, which can be derived from the consumption of undercooked or raw marine life species or drinking contaminated water.
Sofya Vasilyevna Kovalevskaya was a Russian mathematician who made noteworthy contributions to analysis, partial differential equations and mechanics. She was a pioneer for women in mathematics around the world – the first woman to earn a doctorate in mathematics, the first woman appointed to a full professorship in northern Europe and one of the first women to work for a scientific journal as an editor. According to historian of science Ann Hibner Koblitz, Kovalevskaya was "the greatest known woman scientist before the twentieth century".
Koch's postulates are four criteria designed to establish a causal relationship between a microbe and a disease. The postulates were formulated by Robert Koch and Friedrich Loeffler in 1884, based on earlier concepts described by Jakob Henle, and the statements were refined and published by Koch in 1890. Koch applied the postulates to describe the etiology of cholera and tuberculosis, both of which are now ascribed to bacteria. The postulates have been controversially generalized to other diseases. More modern concepts in microbial pathogenesis cannot be examined using Koch's postulates, including viruses and asymptomatic carriers. They have largely been supplanted by other criteria such as the Bradford Hill criteria for infectious disease causality in modern public health and the Molecular Koch's postulates for microbial pathogenesis.
The year 1888 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.
The year 1891 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.
The year 1876 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.
The year 1854 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.
The year 1954 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.
Filippo Pacini was an Italian anatomist, posthumously famous for isolating the cholera bacterium Vibrio cholerae in 1854, well before Robert Koch's more widely accepted discoveries 30 years later.
Cholera toxin is an AB5 multimeric protein complex secreted by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. CTX is responsible for the massive, watery diarrhea characteristic of cholera infection. It is a member of the heat-labile enterotoxin family.
The fifth cholera pandemic (1881–1896) was the fifth major international outbreak of cholera in the 19th century. The endemic origin of the pandemic, as had its predecessors, was in the Ganges Delta in West Bengal. While the Vibrio cholerae bacteria had not been able to spread to western Europe until the 19th century, faster and improved modes of modern transportation, such as steamships and railways, reduced the duration of the journey considerably and facilitated the transmission of cholera and other infectious diseases. During the fourth 1863–1875 cholera pandemic, the third International Sanitary Conference convened in 1866 in Constantinople had identified religious pilgrimages to be "the most powerful of all causes" of cholera and again Hindu and Muslim pilgrimages were an important factor in the spread of the disease.
Events in the year 1884 in Germany.
Nirmal Kumar Dutta (1913–1982) was an Indian pharmacologist, medical academic and the director of Haffkine Institute, Mumbai. He was known for his contributions to the studies on cholera and was an elected fellow of the National Academy of Medical Sciences, National Academy of Sciences, India and the Indian National Science Academy. The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, the apex agency of the Government of India for scientific research, awarded him the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology, one of the highest Indian science awards for his contributions to Medical Sciences in 1965.
Melanie Blokesch is a German microbiologist. Her research focuses on Vibrio cholerae, the bacterium causing cholera. She is a professor of life sciences at École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), where she heads the Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology.
Hans Max Jahn was a German physical chemist who worked on thermochemistry and electrochemistry. As an experimental chemist he identified problems in the contemporary theory of electrolyte conductivity and examined the thermodynamic validity of the Gibbs-Helmholtz equation.
References
- ↑ Arrhenius equation – IUPAC Goldbook definition
- ↑ "Emil Fischer: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1902". Nobel Lectures, Chemistry 1901–1921. Elsevier Publishing Company. 1966. Retrieved February 28, 2007.
- ↑ Henry Louis Le Châtelier. World of Scientific Discovery. Thomson Gale. 2005. Retrieved March 24, 2007.
- ↑ Davis, Tenney L. (1943). The Chemistry of Powder and Explosives. New York: Wiley. pp. 289–292.
- ↑ Köppen, Wladimir (1884). "Die Wärmezonen der Erde, nach der Dauer der heissen, gemässigten und kalten Zeit und nach der Wirkung der Wärme auf die organische Welt betrachtet" [The thermal zones of the earth according to the duration of hot, moderate and cold periods and to the impact of heat on the organic world)]. Meteorologische Zeitschrift. 20 (3). Translated by Volken, E.; Brönnimann, S (published 2011): 351–360. Bibcode:2011MetZe..20..351K. doi:10.1127/0941-2948/2011/105. S2CID 209855204. Archived from the original on September 8, 2016. Retrieved September 2, 2016.
- ↑ Scheeffer, Ludwig (1884). "Allgemeine Untersuchungen über Rectification der Curven". Acta Mathematica . 5: 49–82. doi: 10.1007/BF02421552 .
- ↑ Koch, R. (20 March 1884) "Sechster Bericht der deutschen wissenschaftlichen Commission zur Erforschung der Cholera" (Sixth report of the German scientific commission for research on cholera), Deutsche medizinische Wochenscrift (German Medical Weekly), 10 (12): 191–192. On page 191, he mentions the characteristic comma shape of Vibrio cholerae: "Im letzten Berichte konnte ich bereits gehorsamst mittheilen, dass an den Bacillen des Choleradarms besondere Eigenschaften aufgefunden wurden, durch welche sie mit aller Sicherheit von anderen Bakterien zu unterscheiden sind. Von diesen Merkmalen sind folgende die am meisten charakteristischen: Die Bacillen sind nicht ganz geradlinig, wie die übrigen Bacillen, sondern ein wenig gekrümmt, einem Komma ähnlich." (In the last report, I could already respectfully report that unusual characteristics were discovered in the bacteria of enteric cholera, by which they are to be distinguished with complete certainty from other bacteria. Of these features, the following are the most characteristic: the bacteria are not quite straight, like the rest of the bacilli, but a little bent, similar to a comma.)
- ↑ Rosenfeld, L. (1997). "Vitamine—vitamin: the early years of discovery". Clin Chem. 43 (4): 680–5. doi: 10.1093/clinchem/43.4.680 . PMID 9105273.
- ↑ Gaffky, G. T. A. (1884). "Zur Aetiology des Abdominaltyphus". Mittheilungen aus dem Kaiserlichen Gesundheitsamte. 2: 372–420.
- ↑ Hardy, A. (August 1999). "Food, hygiene, and the laboratory. A short history of food poisoning in Britain, circa 1850-1950". Social History of Medicine. 12 (2): 293–311. doi:10.1093/shm/12.2.293. PMID 11623930.
- ↑ At a medical congress in Heidelberg, Germany, September 15. Honegger, H.; Hessler, H. (September 1970). "[Discovery of local anesthesia by Karl Koller. I]". Klinische Monatsblätter für Augenheilkunde (in German). 157 (3). West Germany: 428–38. ISSN 0023-2165. PMID 4922411.
- ↑ Enersen, Ole Daniel. "Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease". Whonamedit? . Archived from the original on June 28, 2011. Retrieved April 12, 2011.
- ↑ Yuko, Elizabeth (January 8, 2016). "The First Artificial Insemination Was an Ethical Nightmare". The Atlantic. Retrieved July 17, 2019.
- ↑ Kramer, Wendy (May 10, 2016). "A Brief History of Donor Conception". HuffPost. Retrieved July 29, 2021.
- ↑ "Letter to the Editor: Artificial Impregnation". The Medical World: 163–164. April 1909. Archived from the original on July 24, 2012. (cited in Gregoire, A.; Mayer, R. (1964). "The impregnators". Fertility and Sterility. 16: 130–4. doi:10.1016/s0015-0282(16)35476-0. PMID 14256095.)
- ↑ Petrunkevitch, Alexander (1920). "Russia's Contribution to Science". Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Sciences. 23: 232.
- ↑ U.S. patent 293,545 .
- ↑
- 33/256. Bollettino delle privative industriali del Regno d’Italia 2nd Series 15 (1884) pp. 635–655.
- ↑ McCallum, Iain (1999). Blood Brothers – Hiram and Hudson Maxim: Pioneers of Modern Warfare. London: Chatham Publishing. p. 49. ISBN 978-1-86176-096-8.
- ↑ Kane, Joseph Nathan (1997). Famous First Facts: A Record of First Happenings, Discoveries and Inventions in the United States (5th ed.). H. W. Wilson. p. 605. ISBN 0824209303.
- ↑ "Charles Parsons (1854–1931)". Profiles of Scientists from Irish Universities. Archived from the original on January 10, 2008. Retrieved November 3, 2024– via Wayback Machine.
- ↑ Winter, Lumen; Degner, Glenn (1933). Minute Epics of Flight. New York: Grosset & Dunlap. pp. 49–50.
- ↑ Guarnieri, M. (2013). "Who Invented the Transformer?". IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine. 7 (4): 56–59. doi:10.1109/MIE.2013.2283834.
- ↑ Moseley, Brian (August 2007). "Smeaton's Tower". The Encyclopaedia of Plymouth History. Plymouth Data. Archived from the original on March 16, 2011. Retrieved February 13, 2015.
- ↑ Cooke, Roger (1984). The Mathematics of Sonya Kovalevskaya . New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-96030-2.
- ↑ "Copley Medal | British scientific award". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved July 23, 2020.
- ↑ "Notice no. LH/2463/9". Base Léonore (in French).