2002 in science

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Last updated December 23, 2024

The year 2002 in science and technology involved some significant events

Astronomy and space science

February 19 – NASA's 2001 Mars Odyssey space probe begins to map the surface of Mars using its thermal emission imaging system.
May 26 – The Mars Odyssey finds signs of huge water ice deposits on the planet Mars.
June 4 – The ringed dwarf planet Quaoar is discovered by astronomers Chad Trujillo and Michael Brown at the Palomar Observatory.^[1]
June 6 – 2002 Eastern Mediterranean event: An object with an estimated diameter of 10 meters impacts with Earth's atmosphere over the Mediterranean and detonates in mid-air.^[2]
June 10 – Solar eclipse of June 10, 2002: Annular solar eclipse.
September 25 – 2002 Vitim event: Possible bolide impact in Irkutsk Oblast, Russia.^[3]
December 4 – Solar eclipse of December 4, 2002: Total solar eclipse.

Biology

1 March – DNA barcoding of the dodo is published, confirming it as a member of the Columbidae family.^[4]
18 April – New suborder of insects, Mantophasmatidae, announced.
Publication of Systema Porifera: a guide to the classification of sponges edited by John N. A. Hooper and Rob W. M. Van Soest.^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8]

Cartography

Hobo–Dyer projection commissioned.

Computer science and cybernetics

January 7 – The iMac G4 is introduced by Apple, Inc., as the next generation iMac.
March 14 – Prof. Kevin Warwick of the University of Reading in England has part of his nervous system experimentally linked to a computer.^[9] On June 10, he demonstrates the first direct electronic communication between the nervous systems of two humans.
September 20 – Release of the Tor anonymity network is announced.^[10]
September 23 – The first version of the web browser Firefox is released by the Mozilla Organization.
October 1 – The Danger Hiptop is released, the first smartphone to incorporate instant messaging.

Earth sciences

January 17 – Eruption of Mount Nyiragongo in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, displacing an estimated 400,000 people.

Mathematics

August 6 – Polynomial-time primality test published.
November 12 – Grigori Perelman posts the first of a series of eprints to the arXiv in which he proves the century-old Poincaré conjecture.

Palaeoarchaeology

Ciampate del Diavolo (early hominid footprints in Italy) come to scientific attention.

Philosophy

Physics

March 8 – Claims regarding bubble fusion, in which a table-top apparatus is reported as producing small-scale fusion in a liquid undergoing acoustic cavitation, are published.^[11]
May – Experimental discovery of a new type of radioactivity: the 2-protons radioactivity.^[12]^[13]

Physiology and medicine

February – Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells in the eye identified by Samer Hattar and colleagues.^[14]^[15]
May 14 – Red wine is claimed by Spanish researchers to protect against the common cold.^[16]
June – The gene BRAF is shown to be faulty (mutated) in some human cancers.^[17]
November – Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) epidemic begins in Guangdong province of China.^[18]
December 19 – Clozapine is the first drug approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration for reducing the risk of suicidal behaviour.

Technology

November 4 – A Tactical High Energy Laser prototype shoots down an incoming artillery shell.
Malcolm C. Smith introduces the inerter in the study of the mechanical network in control theory.^[19]

Awards

Fields Prize in Mathematics: Laurent Lafforgue and Vladimir Voevodsky
Nobel Prizes
- Chemistry
  - John B. Fenn (Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, USA) and Koichi Tanaka (Shimadzu Corp., Kyoto, Japan) "for their development of soft desorption ionisation methods for mass spectrometric analyses of biological macromolecules"
  - Kurt Wüthrich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), Zürich, Switzerland and The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, USA) "for his development of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy for determining the three-dimensional structure of biological macromolecules in solution"
- Physics
  - Raymond Davis Jr. (Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA) and Masatoshi Koshiba (International Center for Elementary Particle Physics, University of Tokyo, Japan) "for pioneering contributions to astrophysics, in particular for the detection of cosmic neutrinos"
  - Riccardo Giacconi (Associated Universities Inc., Washington, D.C., USA) "for pioneering contributions to astrophysics, which have led to the discovery of cosmic X-ray sources"
- Medicine
  - Sydney Brenner, H. Robert Horvitz and John E. Sulston "for their discoveries concerning genetic regulation of organ development and programmed cell death"
Turing Award: Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman
Wollaston Medal for Geology: Rudolf Trumpy

Deaths

January 8 – Alexander Prokhorov (b. 1916), physicist.
February 6 – Max Perutz (b. 1914), biologist.
February 10 – Harold Furth (b. 1930), expert in plasma physics and nuclear fusion.
February 24 – David Hawkins (b. 1913), philosopher of science and mathematics and science educator.
February 26 – Helen Megaw (b. 1907), crystallographer.
March 3 – Roy Porter (b. 1946), medical historian.
April 9 – Leopold Vietoris (b. 1891), mathematician.
April 18 – Thor Heyerdahl (b. 1914), explorer, led the Kon-Tiki expedition.
May 2 – W. T. Tutte (b. 1917), mathematician and cryptanalyst.
May 20 – Stephen Jay Gould (b. 1941), paleontologist/evolutionist.
June 20 – Erwin Chargaff (b. 1905), biochemist.
June 29 – Ole-Johan Dahl (b. 1931), computer scientist, invented concepts in object-oriented programming.
June 30 – W. Maxwell Cowan (b. 1931), neuroanatomist.
July 4 – Laurent Schwartz (b. 1915), mathematician.
August 6 – Edsger Dijkstra (b. 1930), computer scientist.
August 31 – George Porter (b. 1920), Nobel laureate in chemistry.
September 6 – Orvan Hess (b. 1906), obstetrician.
September 21 – Robert Lull Forward (b. 1932), science fiction author and physicist.
September 29 – Giuliana Tesoro (b. 1921), Italian-American organic chemist
October 18 – Nikolai Rukavishnikov (b. 1932), cosmonaut.
November 2 – Charles Sheffield (b. 1935), science fiction author and physicist.
November 11 – Esther Somerfeld-Ziskind (b. 1901), neurologist and psychiatrist.

Related Research Articles

The Pioneer Venus Orbiter, also known as Pioneer Venus 1 or Pioneer 12, was a mission to Venus conducted by NASA as part of the Pioneer Venus project. Launched in May 1978 atop an Atlas-Centaur rocket, the spacecraft was inserted into an elliptical orbit around Venus on December 4, 1978. It returned data from Venus until October 1992.

The year 1999 in science and technology involved some significant events.

The Pioneer Venus Multiprobe, also known as Pioneer Venus 2 or Pioneer 13, was a spacecraft launched in 1978 to explore Venus as part of NASA's Pioneer program. This part of the mission included a spacecraft bus which was launched from Earth. The bus carried one large and three smaller probes, which, after separating, each penetrated the Venusian atmosphere at a different location, returning data as they descended into the planet's thick atmosphere. The entries occurred on December 9, 1978.

Donald Howard Menzel was one of the first theoretical astronomers and astrophysicists in the United States. He discovered the physical properties of the solar chromosphere, the chemistry of stars, the atmosphere of Mars, and the nature of gaseous nebulae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Retinal ganglion cell</span> Type of cell within the eye

A retinal ganglion cell (RGC) is a type of neuron located near the inner surface of the retina of the eye. It receives visual information from photoreceptors via two intermediate neuron types: bipolar cells and retina amacrine cells. Retina amacrine cells, particularly narrow field cells, are important for creating functional subunits within the ganglion cell layer and making it so that ganglion cells can observe a small dot moving a small distance. Retinal ganglion cells collectively transmit image-forming and non-image forming visual information from the retina in the form of action potential to several regions in the thalamus, hypothalamus, and mesencephalon, or midbrain.

Retinal is a polyene chromophore. Retinal, bound to proteins called opsins, is the chemical basis of visual phototransduction, the light-detection stage of visual perception (vision).

Melanopsin is a type of photopigment belonging to a larger family of light-sensitive retinal proteins called opsins and encoded by the gene Opn4. In the mammalian retina, there are two additional categories of opsins, both involved in the formation of visual images: rhodopsin and photopsin in the rod and cone photoreceptor cells, respectively.

Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs), also called photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (pRGC), or melanopsin-containing retinal ganglion cells (mRGCs), are a type of neuron in the retina of the mammalian eye. The presence of an additional photoreceptor was first suspected in 1927 when mice lacking rod and cone cells still responded to changing light levels through pupil constriction; this suggested that rods and cones are not the only light-sensitive tissue. However, it was unclear whether this light sensitivity arose from an additional retinal photoreceptor or elsewhere in the body. Recent research has shown that these retinal ganglion cells, unlike other retinal ganglion cells, are intrinsically photosensitive due to the presence of melanopsin, a light-sensitive protein. Therefore, they constitute a third class of photoreceptors, in addition to rod and cone cells.

A retinal implant is a visual prosthesis for restoration of sight to patients blinded by retinal degeneration. The system is meant to partially restore useful vision to those who have lost their photoreceptors due to retinal diseases such as retinitis pigmentosa (RP) or age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Retinal implants are being developed by a number of private companies and research institutions, and three types are in clinical trials: epiretinal, subretinal, and suprachoroidal. The implants introduce visual information into the retina by electrically stimulating the surviving retinal neurons. So far, elicited percepts had rather low resolution, and may be suitable for light perception and recognition of simple objects.

The atmosphere of Mars is the layer of gases surrounding Mars. It is primarily composed of carbon dioxide (95%), molecular nitrogen (2.85%), and argon (2%). It also contains trace levels of water vapor, oxygen, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and noble gases. The atmosphere of Mars is much thinner and colder than Earth's having a max density 20g/m³ with a temperature generally below zero down to -60 Celsius. The average surface pressure is about 610 pascals (0.088 psi) which is 0.6% of the Earth's value.

Eridania Lake is a hypothesized ancient lake on Mars with a surface area of roughly 1.1 million square kilometers. It is located at the source of the Ma'adim Vallis outflow channel and extends into Eridania quadrangle and the Phaethontis quadrangle. As Eridania Lake dried out in the late Noachian epoch it divided into a series of smaller lakes.

Ignacio Provencio is an American neuroscientist and the discoverer of melanopsin, an opsin found in specialized photosensitive ganglion cells of the mammalian retina. Provencio served as the program committee chair of the Society for Research on Biological Rhythms from 2008 to 2010.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plutonium-244</span> Isotope of plutonium

Plutonium-244 is an isotope of plutonium that has a half-life of 80 million years. This is longer than any of the other isotopes of plutonium and longer than any other actinide isotope except for the three naturally abundant ones: uranium-235, uranium-238, and thorium-232. Given the mathematics of the decay of plutonium-244, an exceedingly small amount should still be present in the Earth's composition, making plutonium a likely although unproven candidate as the shortest-lived primordial element.

Almost all water on Mars today exists as polar permafrost ice, though it also exists in small quantities as vapor in the atmosphere.

Russell Grant Foster, CBE, FRS FMedSci is a British professor of circadian neuroscience, the Director of the Nuffield Laboratory of Ophthalmology and the Head of the Sleep and Circadian Neuroscience Institute (SCNi). He is also a Nicholas Kurti Senior Fellow at Brasenose College at the University of Oxford. Foster and his group are credited with key contributions to the discovery of the non-rod, non-cone, photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (pRGCs) in the mammalian retina which provide input to the circadian rhythm system. He has written and co-authored over a hundred scientific publications.

Michael B. Elowitz is a biologist and professor of Biology, Bioengineering, and Applied Physics at the California Institute of Technology, and investigator at the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. In 2007 he was the recipient of the Genius grant, better known as the MacArthur Fellows Program for the design of a synthetic gene regulatory network, the Repressilator, which helped initiate the field of synthetic biology. He was the first to show how inherently random effects, or 'noise', in gene expression could be detected and quantified in living cells, leading to a growing recognition of the many roles that noise plays in living cells. His work in Synthetic Biology and Noise represent two foundations of the field of Systems Biology. Since then, his laboratory has contributed to the development of synthetic biological circuits that perform a range of functions inside cells, and revealed biological circuit design principles underlying epigenetic memory, cell fate control, cell-cell communication, and multicellular behaviors.

The Mars orbiter 2001 Mars Odyssey found much evidence for water on Mars in the form of pictures, and with a spectrometer it proved that much of the ground is loaded with ice.

King-Wai Yau is a Chinese-born American neuroscientist and Professor of Neuroscience at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine in Baltimore, Maryland.

References

↑ "JPL Small-Body Database Browser: 50000 Quaoar (2002 LM₆₀)". NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (2023-08-31 last obs). Retrieved 5 July 2024.
↑ Bosker, A. J. (2002-09-17). "Near-Earth Objects Pose Threat, General Says". Space Daily. Retrieved 2016-06-04.
↑ Alfred, Randy (2009-09-25). "Mysterious Meteorite Dazzles Siberia". Wired . Retrieved 2016-06-04.
↑ Shapiro, Beth; et al. (2002). "Flight of the Dodo" (PDF). Science . 295 (5560): 1683. doi:10.1126/science.295.5560.1683. PMID 11872833. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-11-20. Retrieved 2024-12-22.
↑ Kluwer/Plenum (New York) ISBN 0-306-47260-0 (2 vols.)
↑ Berry, Lorraine (2003). "Soaking up the limelight". Nature . 421 (6925): 791. Bibcode:2003Natur.421Q.791B. doi: 10.1038/421791a . S2CID 766377.
↑ Pawlik, Joseph (2003-03-21). "Invertebrate Zoology: Sorting Sponges: a review". Science. 299 (5614): 1846b–1847. doi:10.1126/science.1082916. S2CID 85266676.
↑ Chambers, Susan (2003). "Systema Porifera". Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 13 (5): 461–2. doi:10.1002/aqc.593.
↑ "Cyborg study draws fire". BBC News. 2002-03-22. Retrieved 2010-10-07.
↑ Dingledine, Roger (2002-09-20). "pre-alpha: run an onion proxy now!". or-dev (Mailing list). Retrieved 2008-07-17.
↑ Taleyarkhan, R. P.; West, C. D.; Cho, J. S.; Lahey Jr., R. T.; Nigmatulin, R.; Block, R. C. (2002-03-08). "Evidence for Nuclear Emissions During Acoustic Cavitation". Science . 295 (1868): 1868–73. Bibcode:2002Sci...295.1868T. doi:10.1126/science.1067589. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 11884748. S2CID 11405525 . Retrieved 2012-03-15.
↑ Giovinazzo, J.; Blank, B.; Chartier, M.; Czajkowski, S.; Fleury, A.; Lopez Jimenez, M. J.; Pravikoff, M. S.; Thomas, J.-C.; de Oliveira Santos, F.; Lewitowicz, M.; Maslov, V.; Stanoiu, M.; Grzywacz, R.; Pfützner, M.; Borcea, C. & Brown, B. A. (2002-08-19). "Two-Proton Radioactivity of F45en". Physical Review Letters . 89 (10): 102501. Bibcode:2002PhRvL..89j2501G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.89.102501. PMID 12225187.
↑ Pfützner, M.; et al. (2002-05-28). "First evidence for the two-proton decay of ⁴⁵Fe". The European Physical Journal A . 14 (3): 279–285. Bibcode:2002EPJA...14..279P. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.183.4363 . doi:10.1140/epja/i2002-10033-9. S2CID 120370209.
↑ Hattar, Samer; et al. (2002). "Melanopsin-containing retinal ganglion cells: architecture, projections, and intrinsic photosensitivity". Science. 295 (5557): 1065–70. Bibcode:2002Sci...295.1065H. doi:10.1126/science.1069609. PMC 2885915 . PMID 11834834.
↑ Berson, David M.; et al. (2002). "Phototransduction by retinal ganglion cells that set the circadian clock". Science. 295 (5557): 1070–3. Bibcode:2002Sci...295.1070B. doi:10.1126/science.1067262. PMID 11834835. S2CID 30745140.
↑ "Red wine 'protects from colds'". BBC News. 2002-05-14. Retrieved 2013-03-21.
↑ Davies, H.; Bignell, G. R.; Cox, C.; Stephens, P.; Edkins, S.; Clegg, S.; Teague, J.; Woffendin, H.; Garnett, M. J.; Bottomley, W.; Davis, N.; Dicks, E.; Ewing, R.; Floyd, Y.; Gray, K.; Hall, S.; Hawes, R.; Hughes, J.; Kosmidou, V.; Menzies, A.; Mould, C.; Parker, A.; Stevens, C.; Watt, S.; Hooper, S.; Wilson, R.; Jayatilake, H.; Gusterson, B. A.; Cooper, C.; Shipley, J.; Hargrave, D.; Pritchard-Jones, K.; Maitland, N.; Chenevix-Trench, G.; Riggins, G. J.; Bigner, D. D.; Palmieri, G.; Cossu, A.; Flanagan, A.; Nicholson, A.; Ho, J. W.; Leung, S. Y.; Yuen, S. T.; Weber, B. L.; Seigler, H. F.; Darrow, T. L.; Paterson, H.; Marais, R.; Marshall, C. J.; Wooster, R.; Stratton, M. R.; Futreal, P. A. (June 2002). "Mutations of the BRAF gene in human cancer" (PDF). Nature. 417 (6892): 949–54. Bibcode:2002Natur.417..949D. doi:10.1038/nature00766. PMID 12068308. S2CID 3071547.
↑ "Summary of probable SARS cases with onset of illness from 1 November 2002 to 31 July 2003". World Health Organization. 2004. Archived from the original on 24 June 2011. Retrieved 2011-06-24.
↑ Smith, M. C. (2002). "Synthesis of mechanical networks: The inerter". IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control. 47 (10): 1648–1662. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.227.7188 . doi:10.1109/TAC.2002.803532.

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[jpldataquaoar-1] "JPL Small-Body Database Browser: 50000 Quaoar (2002 LM₆₀)". NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (2023-08-31 last obs). Retrieved 5 July 2024.

[2] Bosker, A. J. (2002-09-17). "Near-Earth Objects Pose Threat, General Says". Space Daily. Retrieved 2016-06-04.

[3] Alfred, Randy (2009-09-25). "Mysterious Meteorite Dazzles Siberia". Wired . Retrieved 2016-06-04.

[4] Shapiro, Beth; et al. (2002). "Flight of the Dodo" (PDF). Science . 295 (5560): 1683. doi:10.1126/science.295.5560.1683. PMID 11872833. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-11-20. Retrieved 2024-12-22.

[5] Kluwer/Plenum (New York) ISBN 0-306-47260-0 (2 vols.)

[6] Berry, Lorraine (2003). "Soaking up the limelight". Nature . 421 (6925): 791. Bibcode:2003Natur.421Q.791B. doi: 10.1038/421791a . S2CID 766377.

[7] Pawlik, Joseph (2003-03-21). "Invertebrate Zoology: Sorting Sponges: a review". Science. 299 (5614): 1846b–1847. doi:10.1126/science.1082916. S2CID 85266676.

[8] Chambers, Susan (2003). "Systema Porifera". Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 13 (5): 461–2. doi:10.1002/aqc.593.

[9] "Cyborg study draws fire". BBC News. 2002-03-22. Retrieved 2010-10-07.

[10] Dingledine, Roger (2002-09-20). "pre-alpha: run an onion proxy now!". or-dev (Mailing list). Retrieved 2008-07-17.

[11] Taleyarkhan, R. P.; West, C. D.; Cho, J. S.; Lahey Jr., R. T.; Nigmatulin, R.; Block, R. C. (2002-03-08). "Evidence for Nuclear Emissions During Acoustic Cavitation". Science . 295 (1868): 1868–73. Bibcode:2002Sci...295.1868T. doi:10.1126/science.1067589. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 11884748. S2CID 11405525 . Retrieved 2012-03-15.

[12] Giovinazzo, J.; Blank, B.; Chartier, M.; Czajkowski, S.; Fleury, A.; Lopez Jimenez, M. J.; Pravikoff, M. S.; Thomas, J.-C.; de Oliveira Santos, F.; Lewitowicz, M.; Maslov, V.; Stanoiu, M.; Grzywacz, R.; Pfützner, M.; Borcea, C. & Brown, B. A. (2002-08-19). "Two-Proton Radioactivity of F45en". Physical Review Letters . 89 (10): 102501. Bibcode:2002PhRvL..89j2501G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.89.102501. PMID 12225187.

[13] Pfützner, M.; et al. (2002-05-28). "First evidence for the two-proton decay of ⁴⁵Fe". The European Physical Journal A . 14 (3): 279–285. Bibcode:2002EPJA...14..279P. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.183.4363 . doi:10.1140/epja/i2002-10033-9. S2CID 120370209.

[14] Hattar, Samer; et al. (2002). "Melanopsin-containing retinal ganglion cells: architecture, projections, and intrinsic photosensitivity". Science. 295 (5557): 1065–70. Bibcode:2002Sci...295.1065H. doi:10.1126/science.1069609. PMC 2885915 . PMID 11834834.

[15] Berson, David M.; et al. (2002). "Phototransduction by retinal ganglion cells that set the circadian clock". Science. 295 (5557): 1070–3. Bibcode:2002Sci...295.1070B. doi:10.1126/science.1067262. PMID 11834835. S2CID 30745140.

[16] "Red wine 'protects from colds'". BBC News. 2002-05-14. Retrieved 2013-03-21.

[17] Davies, H.; Bignell, G. R.; Cox, C.; Stephens, P.; Edkins, S.; Clegg, S.; Teague, J.; Woffendin, H.; Garnett, M. J.; Bottomley, W.; Davis, N.; Dicks, E.; Ewing, R.; Floyd, Y.; Gray, K.; Hall, S.; Hawes, R.; Hughes, J.; Kosmidou, V.; Menzies, A.; Mould, C.; Parker, A.; Stevens, C.; Watt, S.; Hooper, S.; Wilson, R.; Jayatilake, H.; Gusterson, B. A.; Cooper, C.; Shipley, J.; Hargrave, D.; Pritchard-Jones, K.; Maitland, N.; Chenevix-Trench, G.; Riggins, G. J.; Bigner, D. D.; Palmieri, G.; Cossu, A.; Flanagan, A.; Nicholson, A.; Ho, J. W.; Leung, S. Y.; Yuen, S. T.; Weber, B. L.; Seigler, H. F.; Darrow, T. L.; Paterson, H.; Marais, R.; Marshall, C. J.; Wooster, R.; Stratton, M. R.; Futreal, P. A. (June 2002). "Mutations of the BRAF gene in human cancer" (PDF). Nature. 417 (6892): 949–54. Bibcode:2002Natur.417..949D. doi:10.1038/nature00766. PMID 12068308. S2CID 3071547.

[18] "Summary of probable SARS cases with onset of illness from 1 November 2002 to 31 July 2003". World Health Organization. 2004. Archived from the original on 24 June 2011. Retrieved 2011-06-24.

[19] Smith, M. C. (2002). "Synthesis of mechanical networks: The inerter". IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control. 47 (10): 1648–1662. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.227.7188 . doi:10.1109/TAC.2002.803532.

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