1994 in science

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Last updated March 18, 2024

The year 1994 in science and technology involved many significant events, listed below.

Archaeology and paleontology

March 31 – The journal Nature reports the finding in Ethiopia of the first complete Australopithecus afarensis skull, significant in the study of human evolution.
December 18 – Chauvet Cave discovered by Jean-Marie Chauvet and other speleologists near Vallon-Pont-d'Arc in the Ardèche department of southern France, containing some of the earliest known cave paintings of animals, as well as other evidence of Upper Paleolithic life.^[1]^[2]
The Australopithecus skeleton "Little Foot" is identified in South Africa.

Astronomy and space exploration

July 16–22 – The fragments of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 impact the planet Jupiter.
July 21 – R. Ibata, M. Irwin, and G. Gilmore discover the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy, a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way, considered the closest galaxy to the Milky Way until 2003.^[3]
October 12 – NASA loses contact with the Magellan spacecraft after a successful mission. The probe crashes into Venus shortly after.
Asteroid 7484 Dogo Onsesn is discovered by Masahiro Koishikawa.
14032 Mego is discovered.
8C 1435+63 is discovered and at z=4.25 becomes the most distant known galaxy.^[4]^[5]

Biology and medicine

September 10 – Wollemia (the 'Wollemi Pine'), previously known only from fossils, is discovered living in remote rainforest gorges in the Wollemi National Park of New South Wales by David Noble.^[6]
October – First public demonstration of the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews.^[7]
December 15 – Publication of the "Fukuda" clinical description of chronic fatigue syndrome.^[8]
The Dingiso or tree-kangaroo of Western New Guinea is first seen by scientists.^[9]
Gilbert's potoroo is rediscovered in Australia having been thought extinct.
Flora of China begins publication.
The first gene linked to Alzheimer's disease is discovered. No new linked genes would be found until 2009.^[10]
The BRCA1 gene is cloned by scientists at University of Utah, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) and Myriad Genetics.^[11]^[12]
The Western Hemisphere is declared free of polio.

Chemistry

November 9 – Darmstadtium first detected at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI) in Darmstadt, Germany, by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg, under the direction of Prof. Sigurd Hofmann.^[13]
December 8 – The first three atoms of Roentgenium are observed by an international team led by Sigurd Hofmann at the GSI in Darmstadt.^[14]

Computer science

January – Jerry Yang and David Filo create "Jerry's Guide to the World Wide Web", a hierarchically organised website, while studying at Stanford University; in April it is renamed Yahoo! ^[15]
April 12 – Husband-and-wife law partners Laurence Canter and Martha Siegel post the first massive commercial spam on Usenet in the United States.
July 5 - Jeff Bezos launches Amazon
December 3 – Sony release the PlayStation fifth generation home video game console in Japan.^[16]
December 15 – Netscape launch the Netscape Navigator web browser, for which it creates HTTP Secure.^[17]
Leonard Adleman describes the experimental use of DNA as a computational system to solve a seven-node instance of the Hamiltonian path problem, the first known instance of the successful use of DNA to compute an algorithm.^[18]
Penguin Books offer Peter James' novel Host on two floppy disks as "the world's first electronic novel".^[19]

Earth sciences

December 21 – Mexico's Popocatépetl volcano, dormant for 47 years, resumes eruption.

Mathematics

September 19 – Wiles' proof of Fermat's Last Theorem: English mathematician Andrew Wiles devises a new approach to the final proof of Fermat's Last Theorem, sending his proof to colleagues on October 6 and submitting for publication on October 24.
The tennis ball theorem is first published under this name by Russian mathematician Vladimir Arnold.^[20]^[21]

Molecular biology

Green fluorescent protein is successfully expressed in C. elegans , starting its career as a fluorescent marker.

Technology

May 6 – The Channel Tunnel, which took 15,000 workers over seven years to complete, opens between England and France. It is now possible to travel between the two countries in 35 minutes.
August 16 – The world's first smartphone, the IBM Simon, goes on sale.^[22]
December 3 – The first PlayStation gaming console is released in Japan.
The first high-brightness blue LED is achieved, an invention that earns the researchers a Nobel Prize in 2014.^[23]
QR code invented by Japanese company Denso.

Awards

Deaths

January 25 – Stephen Cole Kleene (b. 1909), American mathematician.
April 17 – Roger Wolcott Sperry (b. 1913), American neuropsychologist, neurobiologist and winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
May 12 – Erik Erikson (b. 1902), German American psychologist.
July 29 – Dorothy Hodgkin (b. 1910), British biochemist and winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
August 19 – Linus Pauling (b. 1901), American chemist.
August 29 – Arthur Mourant (b. 1904), Jersiais hematologist.
October 28 – Calvin Souther Fuller (b. 1902), American physical chemist at AT&T Bell Laboratories.

Related Research Articles

Bohrium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Bh and atomic number 107. It is named after Danish physicist Niels Bohr. As a synthetic element, it can be created in particle accelerators but is not found in nature. All known isotopes of bohrium are highly radioactive; the most stable known isotope is ²⁷⁰Bh with a half-life of approximately 2.4 minutes, though the unconfirmed ²⁷⁸Bh may have a longer half-life of about 11.5 minutes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Meitnerium</span> Chemical element, symbol Mt and atomic number 109

Meitnerium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Mt and atomic number 109. It is an extremely radioactive synthetic element. The most stable known isotope, meitnerium-278, has a half-life of 4.5 seconds, although the unconfirmed meitnerium-282 may have a longer half-life of 67 seconds. The GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research near Darmstadt, Germany, first created this element in 1982. It is named after Lise Meitner.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Darmstadtium</span> Chemical element, symbol Ds and atomic number 110

Darmstadtium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Ds and atomic number 110. It is extremely radioactive: the most stable known isotope, darmstadtium-281, has a half-life of approximately 14 seconds. Darmstadtium was first created in 1994 by the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in the city of Darmstadt, Germany, after which it was named.

The year 1996 in science and technology involved many significant events, listed below.

Gottfried Münzenberg was a German physicist.

The year 1977 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.

Berkelium (₉₇Bk) is an artificial element, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all artificial elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized was ²⁴³Bk in 1949. There are 20 known radioisotopes, from ²³⁰Bk and ²³³Bk to ²⁵³Bk, and 6 nuclear isomers. The longest-lived isotope is ²⁴⁷Bk with a half-life of 1,380 years.

Fermium (₁₀₀Fm) is a synthetic element, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all artificial elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be discovered was ²⁵⁵Fm in 1952. ²⁵⁰Fm was independently synthesized shortly after the discovery of ²⁵⁵Fm. There are 20 known radioisotopes ranging in atomic mass from ²⁴¹Fm to ²⁶⁰Fm, and 4 nuclear isomers, ^247mFm, ^250mFm, ^251mFm, and ^253mFm. The longest-lived isotope is ²⁵⁷Fm with a half-life of 100.5 days, and the longest-lived isomer is ^247mFm with a half-life of 5.1 seconds.

Rutherfordium (₁₀₄Rf) is a synthetic element and thus has no stable isotopes. A standard atomic weight cannot be given. The first isotope to be synthesized was either ²⁵⁹Rf in 1966 or ²⁵⁷Rf in 1969. There are 16 known radioisotopes from ²⁵³Rf to ²⁷⁰Rf and several isomers. The longest-lived isotope is ²⁶⁷Rf with a half-life of 48 minutes, and the longest-lived isomer is ^263mRf with a half-life of 8 seconds.

Dubnium (₁₀₅Db) is a synthetic element, thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all synthetic elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized was ²⁶¹Db in 1968. Thirteen radioisotopes are known, ranging from ²⁵⁵Db to ²⁷⁰Db, along with one isomer (^257mDb); two more isomers have been reported but are unconfirmed. The longest-lived known isotope is ²⁶⁸Db with a half-life of 16 hours.

Bohrium (₁₀₇Bh) is an artificial element. Like all artificial elements, it has no stable isotopes, and a standard atomic weight cannot be given. The first isotope to be synthesized was ²⁶²Bh in 1981. There are 11 known isotopes ranging from ²⁶⁰Bh to ²⁷⁴Bh, and 1 isomer, ^262mBh. The longest-lived isotope is ²⁷⁰Bh with a half-life of 2.4 minutes, although the unconfirmed ²⁷⁸Bh may have an even longer half-life of about 690 seconds.

Hassium (₁₀₈Hs) is a synthetic element, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all synthetic elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized was ²⁶⁵Hs in 1984. There are 13 known isotopes from ²⁶³Hs to ²⁷⁷Hs and 1–4 isomers. The most stable isotope of hassium cannot be determined based on existing data due to uncertainty that arises from the low number of measurements. The half-lives of ²⁶⁹Hs and ²⁷¹Hs are about 12 seconds, whereas that of ²⁷⁰Hs is about 7.6 seconds. It is also possible that ^277mHs is more stable than these, with its half-life likely being 130±100 seconds, but only one event of decay of this isotope has been registered as of 2016.

Meitnerium (₁₀₉Mt) is a synthetic element, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all synthetic elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized was ²⁶⁶Mt in 1982, and this is also the only isotope directly synthesized; all other isotopes are only known as decay products of heavier elements. There are eight known isotopes, from ²⁶⁶Mt to ²⁷⁸Mt. There may also be two isomers. The longest-lived of the known isotopes is ²⁷⁸Mt with a half-life of 8 seconds. The unconfirmed heavier ²⁸²Mt appears to have an even longer half-life of 67 seconds.

Darmstadtium (₁₁₀Ds) is a synthetic element, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all synthetic elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized was ²⁶⁹Ds in 1994. There are 11 known radioisotopes from ²⁶⁷Ds to ²⁸¹Ds and 2 or 3 known isomers. The longest-lived isotope is ²⁸¹Ds with a half-life of 14 seconds.

Roentgenium (₁₁₁Rg) is a synthetic element, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all synthetic elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized was ²⁷²Rg in 1994, which is also the only directly synthesized isotope; all others are decay products of heavier elements. There are seven known radioisotopes, having mass numbers of 272, 274, and 278–282. The longest-lived isotope is ²⁸²Rg with a half-life of about 2 minutes, although the unconfirmed ²⁸³Rg and ²⁸⁶Rg may have longer half-lives of about 5.1 minutes and 10.7 minutes respectively.

Nihonium (₁₁₃Nh) is a synthetic element. Being synthetic, a standard atomic weight cannot be given and like all artificial elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized was ²⁸⁴Nh as a decay product of ²⁸⁸Mc in 2003. The first isotope to be directly synthesized was ²⁷⁸Nh in 2004. There are 6 known radioisotopes from ²⁷⁸Nh to ²⁸⁶Nh, along with the unconfirmed ²⁸⁷Nh and ²⁹⁰Nh. The longest-lived isotope is ²⁸⁶Nh with a half-life of 9.5 seconds.

Livermorium (₁₁₆Lv) is an artificial element, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all artificial elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized was ²⁹³Lv in 2000. There are five known radioisotopes, with mass numbers 288 and 290–293, as well as a few suggestive indications of a possible heavier isotope ²⁹⁴Lv. The longest-lived known isotope is ²⁹³Lv with a half-life of 70 ms.

Bismuth-209 (²⁰⁹Bi) is the isotope of bismuth with the longest known half-life of any radioisotope that undergoes α-decay. It has 83 protons and a magic number of 126 neutrons, and an atomic mass of 208.9803987 amu. Primordial bismuth consists entirely of this isotope.

Proteasome activator complex subunit 3 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the PSME3 gene.

ADP-ribosylation factor-like protein 4D is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ARL4D gene.

References

↑ Chauvet, Jean-Marie; Deschamps, Eliette Brunel; Hillaire, Christian (1996). Dawn of Art: The Chauvet Cave . New York: Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 978-0-8109-3232-6.
↑ Clottes, Jean (2003). Chauvet Cave: The Art of Earliest Times. Paul G. Bahn (translator). Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. p. 214. ISBN 978-0-87480-758-5.
↑ Ibata, R. A.; Gilmore, G.; Irwin, M. J. (1994). "A dwarf satellite galaxy in Sagittarius". Nature. 370 (6486): 194–196. Bibcode:1994Natur.370..194I. doi:10.1038/370194a0. S2CID 4335789.
↑ Lacy, M.; Miley, G.; Rawlings, S.; Saunders, R.; Dickinson, M.; Garrington, S.; Maddox, S.; Pooley, G.; Steidel, C. C.; Bremer, M.N.; Cotter, G.; van Ojik, R.; Röttgering, H.; Warner, P. (1994). "8C 1435+635: A radio galaxy at z = 4.25". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society . 271 (2): 504–512. Bibcode:1994MNRAS.271..504L. doi: 10.1093/mnras/271.2.504 .
↑ Spinrad, Hyron; Dey, Arjun; Graham, James R (1994). "Keck Observations of the Most Distant Galaxy: 8C1435+63 at z=4.25". The Astrophysical Journal. 438: L51. arXiv: astro-ph/9411007 . Bibcode:1995ApJ...438L..51S. doi:10.1086/187713. S2CID 37520541.
↑ Woodford, James (2002). The Wollemi Pine: the incredible discovery of a living fossil from the age of the dinosaurs (rev. ed.). Text Publishing Co. ISBN 978-1-876485-74-0.
↑ "About the Cochrane Library". The Cochrane Library. Archived from the original on 2011-01-05. Retrieved 2011-01-25.
↑ Fukuda, Keiji; Straus, Stephen E.; Hickie, Ian; Sharpe, Michael C.; Dobbins, James G.; Komaroff, Anthony; International Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Study Group (15 December 1994). "The Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: A Comprehensive Approach to Its Definition and Study". Annals of Internal Medicine . 121 (12): 953–9. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-121-12-199412150-00009. PMID 7978722. S2CID 510735.
↑ Flannery, T. F.; Boeadi; Szalay, A. L. (1995). "A new tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus: Marsupialia) from Irian Jaya, Indonesia, with notes on ethnography and the evolution of tree-kangaroos". Mammalia. 59 (1): 65–84. doi:10.1515/mamm.1995.59.1.65. S2CID 85107840.
↑ Gallagher, James (2011-04-04). "Five more Alzheimer's genes discovered, scientists say". BBC News . Retrieved 2018-01-12.
↑ USpatent 5747282,Skolnick, H. S.; Goldgar, D. E.; Miki, Y.; Swenson, J.; Kamb, A.; Harshman, K. D.; Shattuck-Eidens, D. M.; Tavtigian, S. V.; Wiseman, R. W.; Futreal, P. A.,"7Q-linked breast and ovarian cancer susceptibility gene",issued 1998-05-05, assigned to Myriad Genetics, Inc., The United States of America as represented by the Secretary of Health and Human Services,and University of Utah Research Foundation.
↑ Miki, Y.; Swensen, J.; Shattuck-Eidens, D.; Futreal, P. A.; Harshman, K.; Tavtigian, S.; Liu, Q.; Cochran, C.; Bennett, L. M.; Ding, W. (October 1994). "A strong candidate for the breast and ovarian cancer susceptibility gene BRCA1". Science . 266 (5182): 66–71. Bibcode:1994Sci...266...66M. doi:10.1126/science.7545954. PMID 7545954.
↑ Hofmann, S.; Ninov, V.; Heßberger, F. P.; Armbruster, P.; Folger, H.; Münzenberg, G.; Schött, H. J.; Popeko, A. G.; Yeremin, A. V.; Andreyev, A. N.; Saro, S.; Janik, R.; Leino, M. (1995). "Production and decay of ²⁶⁹110". Zeitschrift für Physik A. 350 (4): 277–280. Bibcode:1995ZPhyA.350..277H. doi:10.1007/BF01291181. S2CID 125020220.
↑ Hofmann, S.; Ninov, V.; Heßberger, F. P.; Armbruster, P.; Folger, H.; Münzenberg, G.; Schött, H. J.; Popeko, A. G.; Yeremin, A. V.; Andreyev, A. N.; Saro, S.; Janik, R.; Leino, M. (1995). "The new element 111" (PDF). Zeitschrift für Physik A. 350 (4): 281–282. Bibcode:1995ZPhyA.350..281H. doi:10.1007/BF01291182. S2CID 18804192. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-01-16.
↑ Agence France Presse (2012-01-18). "Who is Jerry Yang?". NDTV. NDTV Convergence Limited. Retrieved 2013-05-27.
↑ "Business Development/Japan (1994~2004)". Sony. Archived from the original on 2011-07-03. Retrieved 2012-02-22.
↑ Walls, Colin (2005). Embedded software. p. 344. ISBN 9780750679541 . Retrieved 2012-01-28.
↑ Adleman, Leonard M. (1994-11-11). "Molecular Computation of Solutions To Combinatorial Problems". Science . 266 (5187): 1021–4. Bibcode:1994Sci...266.1021A. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.54.2565 . doi:10.1126/science.7973651. JSTOR 2885489. PMID 7973651.
↑ "All Eight Roy Grace Novels by Peter James Now Available in e-Book Format in the United States: Author of "the world's first electronic novel" in 1994". prweb. 2013-01-31. Retrieved 2015-10-31.
↑ Arnol'd, V. I. (1994), "20. The tennis ball theorem", Topological invariants of plane curves and caustics, University Lecture Series, vol. 5, Providence, RI: American Mathematical Society, pp. 53–58, doi:10.1090/ulect/005, ISBN 978-0-8218-0308-0, MR 1286249
↑ Martinez-Maure, Yves (1996). "A note on the tennis ball theorem". American Mathematical Monthly . 103 (4): 338–340. doi:10.2307/2975192. JSTOR 2975192. MR 1383672.
↑ "World's first 'smartphone' celebrates 20 years". BBC. 15 August 2014. Retrieved 17 August 2014.
↑ Overbye, Dennis (7 October 2014). "Nobel Prize in Physics". The New York Times . Retrieved 7 October 2014.

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[1] Chauvet, Jean-Marie; Deschamps, Eliette Brunel; Hillaire, Christian (1996). Dawn of Art: The Chauvet Cave . New York: Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 978-0-8109-3232-6.

[2] Clottes, Jean (2003). Chauvet Cave: The Art of Earliest Times. Paul G. Bahn (translator). Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. p. 214. ISBN 978-0-87480-758-5.

[3] Ibata, R. A.; Gilmore, G.; Irwin, M. J. (1994). "A dwarf satellite galaxy in Sagittarius". Nature. 370 (6486): 194–196. Bibcode:1994Natur.370..194I. doi:10.1038/370194a0. S2CID 4335789.

[4] Lacy, M.; Miley, G.; Rawlings, S.; Saunders, R.; Dickinson, M.; Garrington, S.; Maddox, S.; Pooley, G.; Steidel, C. C.; Bremer, M.N.; Cotter, G.; van Ojik, R.; Röttgering, H.; Warner, P. (1994). "8C 1435+635: A radio galaxy at z = 4.25". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society . 271 (2): 504–512. Bibcode:1994MNRAS.271..504L. doi: 10.1093/mnras/271.2.504 .

[5] Spinrad, Hyron; Dey, Arjun; Graham, James R (1994). "Keck Observations of the Most Distant Galaxy: 8C1435+63 at z=4.25". The Astrophysical Journal. 438: L51. arXiv: astro-ph/9411007 . Bibcode:1995ApJ...438L..51S. doi:10.1086/187713. S2CID 37520541.

[6] Woodford, James (2002). The Wollemi Pine: the incredible discovery of a living fossil from the age of the dinosaurs (rev. ed.). Text Publishing Co. ISBN 978-1-876485-74-0.

[7] "About the Cochrane Library". The Cochrane Library. Archived from the original on 2011-01-05. Retrieved 2011-01-25.

[8] Fukuda, Keiji; Straus, Stephen E.; Hickie, Ian; Sharpe, Michael C.; Dobbins, James G.; Komaroff, Anthony; International Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Study Group (15 December 1994). "The Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: A Comprehensive Approach to Its Definition and Study". Annals of Internal Medicine . 121 (12): 953–9. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-121-12-199412150-00009. PMID 7978722. S2CID 510735.

[9] Flannery, T. F.; Boeadi; Szalay, A. L. (1995). "A new tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus: Marsupialia) from Irian Jaya, Indonesia, with notes on ethnography and the evolution of tree-kangaroos". Mammalia. 59 (1): 65–84. doi:10.1515/mamm.1995.59.1.65. S2CID 85107840.

[10] Gallagher, James (2011-04-04). "Five more Alzheimer's genes discovered, scientists say". BBC News . Retrieved 2018-01-12.

[11] USpatent 5747282,Skolnick, H. S.; Goldgar, D. E.; Miki, Y.; Swenson, J.; Kamb, A.; Harshman, K. D.; Shattuck-Eidens, D. M.; Tavtigian, S. V.; Wiseman, R. W.; Futreal, P. A.,"7Q-linked breast and ovarian cancer susceptibility gene",issued 1998-05-05, assigned to Myriad Genetics, Inc., The United States of America as represented by the Secretary of Health and Human Services,and University of Utah Research Foundation.

[12] Miki, Y.; Swensen, J.; Shattuck-Eidens, D.; Futreal, P. A.; Harshman, K.; Tavtigian, S.; Liu, Q.; Cochran, C.; Bennett, L. M.; Ding, W. (October 1994). "A strong candidate for the breast and ovarian cancer susceptibility gene BRCA1". Science . 266 (5182): 66–71. Bibcode:1994Sci...266...66M. doi:10.1126/science.7545954. PMID 7545954.

[13] Hofmann, S.; Ninov, V.; Heßberger, F. P.; Armbruster, P.; Folger, H.; Münzenberg, G.; Schött, H. J.; Popeko, A. G.; Yeremin, A. V.; Andreyev, A. N.; Saro, S.; Janik, R.; Leino, M. (1995). "Production and decay of ²⁶⁹110". Zeitschrift für Physik A. 350 (4): 277–280. Bibcode:1995ZPhyA.350..277H. doi:10.1007/BF01291181. S2CID 125020220.

[14] Hofmann, S.; Ninov, V.; Heßberger, F. P.; Armbruster, P.; Folger, H.; Münzenberg, G.; Schött, H. J.; Popeko, A. G.; Yeremin, A. V.; Andreyev, A. N.; Saro, S.; Janik, R.; Leino, M. (1995). "The new element 111" (PDF). Zeitschrift für Physik A. 350 (4): 281–282. Bibcode:1995ZPhyA.350..281H. doi:10.1007/BF01291182. S2CID 18804192. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-01-16.

[15] Agence France Presse (2012-01-18). "Who is Jerry Yang?". NDTV. NDTV Convergence Limited. Retrieved 2013-05-27.

[16] "Business Development/Japan (1994~2004)". Sony. Archived from the original on 2011-07-03. Retrieved 2012-02-22.

[17] Walls, Colin (2005). Embedded software. p. 344. ISBN 9780750679541 . Retrieved 2012-01-28.

[18] Adleman, Leonard M. (1994-11-11). "Molecular Computation of Solutions To Combinatorial Problems". Science . 266 (5187): 1021–4. Bibcode:1994Sci...266.1021A. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.54.2565 . doi:10.1126/science.7973651. JSTOR 2885489. PMID 7973651.

[19] "All Eight Roy Grace Novels by Peter James Now Available in e-Book Format in the United States: Author of "the world's first electronic novel" in 1994". prweb. 2013-01-31. Retrieved 2015-10-31.

[20] Arnol'd, V. I. (1994), "20. The tennis ball theorem", Topological invariants of plane curves and caustics, University Lecture Series, vol. 5, Providence, RI: American Mathematical Society, pp. 53–58, doi:10.1090/ulect/005, ISBN 978-0-8218-0308-0, MR 1286249

[21] Martinez-Maure, Yves (1996). "A note on the tennis ball theorem". American Mathematical Monthly . 103 (4): 338–340. doi:10.2307/2975192. JSTOR 2975192. MR 1383672.

[22] "World's first 'smartphone' celebrates 20 years". BBC. 15 August 2014. Retrieved 17 August 2014.

[23] Overbye, Dennis (7 October 2014). "Nobel Prize in Physics". The New York Times . Retrieved 7 October 2014.

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