Action | |
---|---|
Common symbols | S |
SI unit | joule-second |
Other units | J⋅Hz−1 |
In SI base units | kg⋅m2⋅s−1 |
Dimension |
In physics, action is a scalar quantity that describes how the balance of kinetic versus potential energy of a physical system changes with trajectory. Action is significant because it is an input to the principle of stationary action, an approach to classical mechanics that is simpler for multiple objects. [1] Action and the variational principle are used in Feynman's formulation of quantum mechanics [2] and in general relativity. [3] For systems with small values of action similar to the Planck constant, quantum effects are significant. [4]
In the simple case of a single particle moving with a constant velocity (thereby undergoing uniform linear motion), the action is the momentum of the particle times the distance it moves, added up along its path; equivalently, action is the difference between the particle's kinetic energy and its potential energy, times the duration for which it has that amount of energy.
More formally, action is a mathematical functional which takes the trajectory (also called path or history) of the system as its argument and has a real number as its result. Generally, the action takes different values for different paths. [5] Action has dimensions of energy × time or momentum × length, and its SI unit is joule-second (like the Planck constant h). [6]
Introductory physics often begins with Newton's laws of motion, relating force and motion; action is part of a completely equivalent alternative approach with practical and educational advantages. [1] However, the concept took many decades to supplant Newtonian approaches and remains a challenge to introduce to students. [7]
For a trajectory of a ball moving in the air on Earth the action is defined between two points in time, and as the kinetic energy (KE) minus the potential energy (PE), integrated over time. [4]
The action balances kinetic against potential energy. [4] The kinetic energy of a ball of mass is where is the velocity of the ball; the potential energy is where is the gravitational constant. Then the action between and is
The action value depends upon the trajectory taken by the ball through and . This makes the action an input to the powerful stationary-action principle for classical and for quantum mechanics. Newton's equations of motion for the ball can be derived from the action using the stationary-action principle, but the advantages of action-based mechanics only begin to appear in cases where Newton's laws are difficult to apply. Replace the ball with an electron: classical mechanics fails but stationary action continues to work. [4] The energy difference in the simple action definition, kinetic minus potential energy, is generalized and called the Lagrangian for more complex cases.
The Planck constant, written as or when including a factor of , is called the quantum of action. [8] Like action, this constant has unit of energy times time. It figures in all significant quantum equations, like the uncertainty principle and the de Broglie wavelength. Whenever the value of the action approaches the Planck constant, quantum effects are significant. [4]
Pierre Louis Maupertuis and Leonhard Euler working in the 1740s developed early versions of the action principle. Joseph Louis Lagrange clarified the mathematics when he invented the calculus of variations. William Rowan Hamilton made the next big breakthrough, formulating Hamilton's principle in 1853. [9] : 740 Hamilton's principle became the cornerstone for classical work with different forms of action until Richard Feynman and Julian Schwinger developed quantum action principles. [10] : 127
Expressed in mathematical language, using the calculus of variations, the evolution of a physical system (i.e., how the system actually progresses from one state to another) corresponds to a stationary point (usually, a minimum) of the action. Action has the dimensions of [energy] × [time], and its SI unit is joule-second, which is identical to the unit of angular momentum.
Several different definitions of "the action" are in common use in physics. [11] [12] The action is usually an integral over time. However, when the action pertains to fields, it may be integrated over spatial variables as well. In some cases, the action is integrated along the path followed by the physical system.
The action is typically represented as an integral over time, taken along the path of the system between the initial time and the final time of the development of the system: [11] where the integrand L is called the Lagrangian. For the action integral to be well-defined, the trajectory has to be bounded in time and space.
Most commonly, the term is used for a functional which takes a function of time and (for fields) space as input and returns a scalar. [13] [14] In classical mechanics, the input function is the evolution q(t) of the system between two times t1 and t2, where q represents the generalized coordinates. The action is defined as the integral of the Lagrangian L for an input evolution between the two times: where the endpoints of the evolution are fixed and defined as and . According to Hamilton's principle, the true evolution qtrue(t) is an evolution for which the action is stationary (a minimum, maximum, or a saddle point). This principle results in the equations of motion in Lagrangian mechanics.
In addition to the action functional, there is another functional called the abbreviated action. In the abbreviated action, the input function is the path followed by the physical system without regard to its parameterization by time. For example, the path of a planetary orbit is an ellipse, and the path of a particle in a uniform gravitational field is a parabola; in both cases, the path does not depend on how fast the particle traverses the path.
The abbreviated action (sometime written as ) is defined as the integral of the generalized momenta, for a system Lagrangian along a path in the generalized coordinates : where and are the starting and ending coordinates. According to Maupertuis's principle, the true path of the system is a path for which the abbreviated action is stationary.
When the total energy E is conserved, the Hamilton–Jacobi equation can be solved with the additive separation of variables: [11] : 225 where the time-independent function W(q1, q2, ..., qN) is called Hamilton's characteristic function. The physical significance of this function is understood by taking its total time derivative
This can be integrated to give
which is just the abbreviated action. [15] : 434
A variable Jk in the action-angle coordinates, called the "action" of the generalized coordinate qk, is defined by integrating a single generalized momentum around a closed path in phase space, corresponding to rotating or oscillating motion: [15] : 454
The corresponding canonical variable conjugate to Jk is its "angle" wk, for reasons described more fully under action-angle coordinates. The integration is only over a single variable qk and, therefore, unlike the integrated dot product in the abbreviated action integral above. The Jk variable equals the change in Sk(qk) as qk is varied around the closed path. For several physical systems of interest, Jk is either a constant or varies very slowly; hence, the variable Jk is often used in perturbation calculations and in determining adiabatic invariants. For example, they are used in the calculation of planetary and satellite orbits. [15] : 477
When relativistic effects are significant, the action of a point particle of mass m travelling a world line C parametrized by the proper time is
If instead, the particle is parametrized by the coordinate time t of the particle and the coordinate time ranges from t1 to t2, then the action becomes where the Lagrangian is [16]
Physical laws are frequently expressed as differential equations, which describe how physical quantities such as position and momentum change continuously with time, space or a generalization thereof. Given the initial and boundary conditions for the situation, the "solution" to these empirical equations is one or more functions that describe the behavior of the system and are called equations of motion .
Action is a part of an alternative approach to finding such equations of motion. Classical mechanics postulates that the path actually followed by a physical system is that for which the action is minimized, or more generally, is stationary. In other words, the action satisfies a variational principle: the principle of stationary action (see also below). The action is defined by an integral, and the classical equations of motion of a system can be derived by minimizing the value of that integral.
The action principle provides deep insights into physics, and is an important concept in modern theoretical physics. Various action principles and related concepts are summarized below.
In classical mechanics, Maupertuis's principle (named after Pierre Louis Maupertuis) states that the path followed by a physical system is the one of least length (with a suitable interpretation of path and length). Maupertuis's principle uses the abbreviated action between two generalized points on a path.
Hamilton's principle states that the differential equations of motion for any physical system can be re-formulated as an equivalent integral equation. Thus, there are two distinct approaches for formulating dynamical models.
Hamilton's principle applies not only to the classical mechanics of a single particle, but also to classical fields such as the electromagnetic and gravitational fields. Hamilton's principle has also been extended to quantum mechanics and quantum field theory—in particular the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics makes use of the concept—where a physical system explores all possible paths, with the phase of the probability amplitude for each path being determined by the action for the path; the final probability amplitude adds all paths using their complex amplitude and phase. [17]
Hamilton's principal function is obtained from the action functional by fixing the initial time and the initial endpoint while allowing the upper time limit and the second endpoint to vary. The Hamilton's principal function satisfies the Hamilton–Jacobi equation, a formulation of classical mechanics. Due to a similarity with the Schrödinger equation, the Hamilton–Jacobi equation provides, arguably, the most direct link with quantum mechanics.
In Lagrangian mechanics, the requirement that the action integral be stationary under small perturbations is equivalent to a set of differential equations (called the Euler–Lagrange equations) that may be obtained using the calculus of variations.
The action principle can be extended to obtain the equations of motion for fields, such as the electromagnetic field or gravitational field. Maxwell's equations can be derived as conditions of stationary action.
The Einstein equation utilizes the Einstein–Hilbert action as constrained by a variational principle. The trajectory (path in spacetime) of a body in a gravitational field can be found using the action principle. For a free falling body, this trajectory is a geodesic.
Implications of symmetries in a physical situation can be found with the action principle, together with the Euler–Lagrange equations, which are derived from the action principle. An example is Noether's theorem, which states that to every continuous symmetry in a physical situation there corresponds a conservation law (and conversely). This deep connection requires that the action principle be assumed. [17]
In quantum mechanics, the system does not follow a single path whose action is stationary, but the behavior of the system depends on all permitted paths and the value of their action. The action corresponding to the various paths is used to calculate the path integral, which gives the probability amplitudes of the various outcomes.
Although equivalent in classical mechanics with Newton's laws, the action principle is better suited for generalizations and plays an important role in modern physics. Indeed, this principle is one of the great generalizations in physical science. It is best understood within quantum mechanics, particularly in Richard Feynman's path integral formulation, where it arises out of destructive interference of quantum amplitudes.
The action principle can be generalized still further. For example, the action need not be an integral, because nonlocal actions are possible. The configuration space need not even be a functional space, given certain features such as noncommutative geometry. However, a physical basis for these mathematical extensions remains to be established experimentally. [13]
In theoretical physics, quantum field theory (QFT) is a theoretical framework that combines classical field theory, special relativity, and quantum mechanics. QFT is used in particle physics to construct physical models of subatomic particles and in condensed matter physics to construct models of quasiparticles. The current standard model of particle physics is based on quantum field theory.
Newton's laws of motion are three physical laws that describe the relationship between the motion of an object and the forces acting on it. These laws, which provide the basis for Newtonian mechanics, can be paraphrased as follows:
The Schrödinger equation is a partial differential equation that governs the wave function of a non-relativistic quantum-mechanical system. Its discovery was a significant landmark in the development of quantum mechanics. It is named after Erwin Schrödinger, who postulated the equation in 1925 and published it in 1926, forming the basis for the work that resulted in his Nobel Prize in Physics in 1933.
In physics, equations of motion are equations that describe the behavior of a physical system in terms of its motion as a function of time. More specifically, the equations of motion describe the behavior of a physical system as a set of mathematical functions in terms of dynamic variables. These variables are usually spatial coordinates and time, but may include momentum components. The most general choice are generalized coordinates which can be any convenient variables characteristic of the physical system. The functions are defined in a Euclidean space in classical mechanics, but are replaced by curved spaces in relativity. If the dynamics of a system is known, the equations are the solutions for the differential equations describing the motion of the dynamics.
Noether's theorem states that every continuous symmetry of the action of a physical system with conservative forces has a corresponding conservation law. This is the first of two theorems published by mathematician Emmy Noether in 1918. The action of a physical system is the integral over time of a Lagrangian function, from which the system's behavior can be determined by the principle of least action. This theorem only applies to continuous and smooth symmetries of physical space.
In physics, Hamiltonian mechanics is a reformulation of Lagrangian mechanics that emerged in 1833. Introduced by Sir William Rowan Hamilton, Hamiltonian mechanics replaces (generalized) velocities used in Lagrangian mechanics with (generalized) momenta. Both theories provide interpretations of classical mechanics and describe the same physical phenomena.
In special relativity, four-momentum (also called momentum–energy or momenergy) is the generalization of the classical three-dimensional momentum to four-dimensional spacetime. Momentum is a vector in three dimensions; similarly four-momentum is a four-vector in spacetime. The contravariant four-momentum of a particle with relativistic energy E and three-momentum p = (px, py, pz) = γmv, where v is the particle's three-velocity and γ the Lorentz factor, is
Scientific laws or laws of science are statements, based on repeated experiments or observations, that describe or predict a range of natural phenomena. The term law has diverse usage in many cases across all fields of natural science. Laws are developed from data and can be further developed through mathematics; in all cases they are directly or indirectly based on empirical evidence. It is generally understood that they implicitly reflect, though they do not explicitly assert, causal relationships fundamental to reality, and are discovered rather than invented.
An instanton is a notion appearing in theoretical and mathematical physics. An instanton is a classical solution to equations of motion with a finite, non-zero action, either in quantum mechanics or in quantum field theory. More precisely, it is a solution to the equations of motion of the classical field theory on a Euclidean spacetime.
The path integral formulation is a description in quantum mechanics that generalizes the stationary action principle of classical mechanics. It replaces the classical notion of a single, unique classical trajectory for a system with a sum, or functional integral, over an infinity of quantum-mechanically possible trajectories to compute a quantum amplitude.
In theoretical physics and mathematical physics, analytical mechanics, or theoretical mechanics is a collection of closely related formulations of classical mechanics. Analytical mechanics uses scalar properties of motion representing the system as a whole—usually its kinetic energy and potential energy. The equations of motion are derived from the scalar quantity by some underlying principle about the scalar's variation.
The Schwinger's quantum action principle is a variational approach to quantum mechanics and quantum field theory. This theory was introduced by Julian Schwinger in a series of articles starting 1950.
A classical field theory is a physical theory that predicts how one or more fields in physics interact with matter through field equations, without considering effects of quantization; theories that incorporate quantum mechanics are called quantum field theories. In most contexts, 'classical field theory' is specifically intended to describe electromagnetism and gravitation, two of the fundamental forces of nature.
In classical mechanics, Maupertuis's principle states that the path followed by a physical system is the one of least length. It is a special case of the more generally stated principle of least action. Using the calculus of variations, it results in an integral equation formulation of the equations of motion for the system.
In physics, Hamilton's principle is William Rowan Hamilton's formulation of the principle of stationary action. It states that the dynamics of a physical system are determined by a variational problem for a functional based on a single function, the Lagrangian, which may contain all physical information concerning the system and the forces acting on it. The variational problem is equivalent to and allows for the derivation of the differential equations of motion of the physical system. Although formulated originally for classical mechanics, Hamilton's principle also applies to classical fields such as the electromagnetic and gravitational fields, and plays an important role in quantum mechanics, quantum field theory and criticality theories.
In physics, a variational principle is an alternative method for determining the state or dynamics of a physical system, by identifying it as an extremum of a function or functional. Variational methods are exploited in many modern software to simulate matter and light.
Classical mechanics is a physical theory describing the motion of objects such as projectiles, parts of machinery, spacecraft, planets, stars, and galaxies. The development of classical mechanics involved substantial change in the methods and philosophy of physics. The qualifier classical distinguishes this type of mechanics from physics developed after the revolutions in physics of the early 20th century, all of which revealed limitations in classical mechanics.
In physics, Lagrangian mechanics is a formulation of classical mechanics founded on the stationary-action principle. It was introduced by the Italian-French mathematician and astronomer Joseph-Louis Lagrange in his presentation to the Turin Academy of Science in 1760 culminating in his 1788 grand opus, Mécanique analytique.
Lagrangian field theory is a formalism in classical field theory. It is the field-theoretic analogue of Lagrangian mechanics. Lagrangian mechanics is used to analyze the motion of a system of discrete particles each with a finite number of degrees of freedom. Lagrangian field theory applies to continua and fields, which have an infinite number of degrees of freedom.
Action principles lie at the heart of fundamental physics, from classical mechanics through quantum mechanics, particle physics, and general relativity. Action principles start with an energy function called a Lagrangian describing the physical system. The accumulated value of this energy function between two states of the system is called the action. Action principles apply the calculus of variation to the action. The action depends on the energy function, and the energy function depends on the position, motion, and interactions in the system: variation of the action allows the derivation of the equations of motion without vector or forces.