Almond moth

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Almond moth
CSIRO ScienceImage 2600 Tropical warehouse moth or almond moth Cadra cautella syn Ephestia cautella.jpg
Caterpillar and moth
Almond moth.jpg
Caterpillar (below) and pupa (above) in peanut husks
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Pyralidae
Genus: Cadra
Species:
C. cautella
Binomial name
Cadra cautella
(Walker, 1863)
Synonyms

Numerous, see text

The almond moth or tropical warehouse moth (Cadra cautella) is a small, stored-product pest. Almond moths infest flour, bran, oats, and other grains, as well as dried fruits. [1] It belongs to the family of snout moths (Pyralidae), and more specifically to the tribe Phycitini of the huge snout moth subfamily Phycitinae. This species may be confused with the related Indian mealmoth (Plodia interpunctella) or the Mediterranean flour moth (Ephestia kuehniella), which are also common pantry pests in the same subfamily. [2]

Contents

Other common names, particularly in nonbiological literature, are dried currant moth and fig moth, which invite confusion with the close relatives Cadra figulilella (raisin moth) and Cadra calidella (dried fruit moth). Like the raisin moth, the almond moth has achieved an essentially cosmopolitan distribution due to inadvertent transport with food products in its larval form. Adults live for about 10 days after eclosion and do not eat, but may drink if water is available. The mating system is polygamous; however, many females will only mate once.

Description and identification

Adult almond months are predominantly light brown in color, with smaller hind wings that are typically gray. When extended, its wingspan ranges from 14 to 22 mm. The back edges of the wings are lined with a short fringe. [3]

Almond moth larvae are mostly gray with darker heads. The caterpillar is 12–15 mm long and identifiable by the pattern of spots along its back. [3]

Geographic range

Almond moths are found around the world. Although it thrives best in tropical climates, it has spread to many regions around the globe due to its tendency to infest dry goods that are shipped internationally. [3] For example, it has been transported across Polynesia with copra shipments. [4]

Habitat

As almond moths exists primarily as a pest, its habitat is often some kind of dry food product which is stored in a warehouse or similar industrial environment. Most commonly, they are found in dried fruits, but they have also been found in nuts, beans, flour, and other grains. [3]

Food sources

almond moth larva CSIRO ScienceImage 2667 Caterpillar of the tropical warehouse moth or almond moth Cadra cautella syn Ephestia cautella.jpg
almond moth larva

Larvae

Larval almond moths are hatched onto a variety of dry food products, which then serve as their primary food source. Although the moth infests several different kinds of food, the larvae develop most rapidly on wheat-based products. [5] Moreover, cracked or ground seed and grain products are more ideal for larvae than whole seeds or grains because the larvae are unable to penetrate shells or hulls, which makes feeding more difficult. [6] The caterpillars are cannibalistic; larvae will also eat eggs and other smaller larvae. [7]

Adults

Adult almond moths do not eat during their short lifespan but will drink water if they have access to it. [8]

Parental care

Oviposition

Generally, adult female moths will oviposit around 200 eggs at a time. The timing and number of eggs oviposited has been shown to vary based on several factors, including temperature, humidity, access to water, and type of food source. Low temperatures delay oviposition, and low humidity or lack of access to water seems to reduce the number of eggs oviposited by any given female. [3] Preferred food source upon which to oviposit may vary with the strain of almond moth. [9] Typically, females will oviposit at night. [10]

Life history

Life cycle

The almond moth thrives best in warm, humid environments. The ideal temperature range for development is 30–32 degrees Celsius (86–90 degrees Fahrenheit), and the ideal humidity range is 70-80%. [5] In optimal conditions, it takes about three and a half days for eggs to hatch, and the larvae go through five instars over a period ranging from 17 to 37 days. [7] The pupal stages lasts around seven days in optimal temperature and humidity. [3] Adult females live on average for ten days and adult males live for an average of six to seven days. [8]

Enemies

Predators

Xylocoris flavipes is a type of true bug which feeds preferentially on the eggs and early larval stages of the almond moth. [11] Blattisocius tarsalis is a kind of mite which will feed on almond moth eggs throughout its life cycle, and has been considered as a mechanism for controlling infestations of the almond moth. [12]

Parasites

A variety of species within the order Hymenoptera are parasites of the almond moth. Several parasites of the genus Trichogramma , including T. evanescens, T. cacoeciae, and T. brassicae are common among organisms in the order Lepidoptera and, as such, are known to parasitize almond moths. Trichogramma are very small wasps, and they will puncture the eggs of almond moths and leave their own progeny inside. [13] These parasites will kill the larva inside and later emerge from the egg themselves. [14] Other kinds of wasps, including Bracon hebetor and Venturia canescens, parasitize almond moth larvae in the later instars. [11]

Diseases

Wolbachia is a type of bacteria which infects several types of invertebrates, including the almond moth. Wolbachia is transmitted from mother to offspring, as it resides in the ovaries of its host. As such, Wolbachia does not directly kill the infected moth which houses it, because its primary means of spreading are through the moth's reproduction. Only moths who live to adulthood will be able to reproduce and thus spread the bacteria further. [15]

Mating

Lifetime mating habits

Almond moths are largely polygynous; most males will remate multiple times, but only around 20% of females will remate. Although the amount of sperm produced by males decreases across subsequent copulations, this appears to have no effect on the number of eggs laid and offspring hatched by the female. [16] However, larger spermatophores are correlated with several outcomes that benefit male moths. First, a large spermatophore decreases the likelihood that the recipient female will remate, and if she does, a large spermatophore ensures a better chance of paternity for the first male moth. [17] Mating decreases lifespan for both male and female moths relative to virgins. [18]

Female/male interactions

In almond moths, females will initiate courtship by attracting a male through the adoption of several positions which indicate her receptivity for copulation. Female moths will start by taking on some variation of a calling posture, which typically involves a bowed abdomen, spread wings, and the release of pheromones from the female's ovipositor. [19] Once a male has approached, the female will assume an acceptance posture. This is marked by tensing of the abdominal muscles, which raises the abdomen, spreads the wings, and retracts the ovipositor. [19] To commence copulation, the female remains mostly stationary while the male goes through a series of movements known as "fronting-up", which ensures genital contact. Fronting-up involves the male positioning himself first in front of the female and rapidly flapping his wings, which contain many scent scales. Eventually, the male will make a complete rotation so that they are facing in opposite directions with only their genitalia in contact. The female will either assume an acceptance posture, which essentially means that she remains immobile, or a rejection posture, which can involve movement away from the male or flapping of wings. [19]

Factors affecting mating

In the almond moth, mating lasts between 1.5 and 2 hours. [8] Female moths will mate with both virgin and mated males, but when given a choice in a laboratory setting, females preferentially copulated with mated males. [20] During mating, males first deliver a volume of seminal compounds followed by the spermatophore. These seminal compounds appear to contain chemicals which decrease female remating, and enhance the number of eggs laid by the female. The prespermatophoric ejaculate also likely contains nutritive compounds, which contribute to the health of future offspring and the female herself. While instances of remating are low in almond moths, it is most likely to occur in instances where the female received only seminal compounds and no spermatophore. [21] The spermatophore contains two different kinds of sperm: eupyrene sperm, which contains genetic material, and apyrene sperm, which is sterile. The presence of apyrene sperm is thought to produce a larger refractory period in the female moth by filling her reproductive tract, and thus prolonging the time period before she can remate. Male moths living in a population with high larval density produce higher ratios of apyrene to eupyrene sperm, presumably due to the fact that high larval population density increases the threat of sperm competition. [22]

Interspecific mating

The almond moth often takes part in courtship with other species, especially with the Indian mealmoth (Plodia interpunctella). Even so, successful mating between the species is highly unlikely since they are mechanically isolated from one another. The male sex pheromone serves as a key species recognition signal. This, in addition to other mechanical barriers to insemination, make copulation rare. [23]

Interaction with humans

The almond moth is commonly regarded as a pest because it can be found in various kinds of dry food products including, but not limited to: dried fruits, wheat products, flours, nuts, and seeds. [3] A variety of means by which to control the spread of almond moths have been explored. While pesticides and other chemical agents may reduce infestation, these products can present harmful consequences for the environment and for the humans who consume the foods on which the almond moth feeds. Thus, the exploration of natural enemies of the almond moth (including various kinds of predators and parasites) has been pursued as a means to control infestations. [24]

Synonyms

Because of its wide distribution and accidental introductions, it has become known under a number of junior synonyms: [25]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pyralidae</span> Family of moths

The Pyralidae, commonly called pyralid moths, snout moths or grass moths, are a family of Lepidoptera in the ditrysian superfamily Pyraloidea. In many classifications, the grass moths (Crambidae) are included in the Pyralidae as a subfamily, making the combined group one of the largest families in the Lepidoptera. The latest review by Eugene G. Munroe and Maria Alma Solis retain the Crambidae as a full family of Pyraloidea.

<i>Trichogramma</i> Genus of parasitic insects

Trichogramma is a genus of minute polyphagous wasps that are endoparasitoids of insect eggs. Trichogramma is one of around 80 genera from the family Trichogrammatidae, with over 200 species worldwide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indianmeal moth</span> Species of moth

The Indianmeal moth, also spelled Indian meal moth and Indian-meal moth, is a pyraloid moth of the family Pyralidae. Alternative common names are hanger-downers, weevil moth, pantry moth, flour moth or grain moth. The almond moth and the raisin moth are commonly confused with the Indian-meal moth due to similar food sources and appearance. The species was named for feeding on Indian meal or cornmeal, and does not occur natively in India. It is also not to be confused with the Mediterranean flour moth, another common pest of stored grains.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mediterranean flour moth</span> Species of moth

The Mediterranean flour moth or mill moth is a moth of the family Pyralidae. It is a common pest of cereal grains, especially flour. This moth is found throughout the world, especially in countries with temperate climates. It prefers warm temperatures for more rapid development, but it can survive a wide range of temperatures.

<i>Choristoneura fumiferana</i> Species of moth

Choristoneura fumiferana, the eastern spruce budworm, is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae native to the eastern United States and Canada. The caterpillars feed on the needles of spruce and fir trees. Eastern spruce budworm populations can experience significant oscillations, with large outbreaks sometimes resulting in wide scale tree mortality. The first recorded outbreaks of the spruce budworm in the United States occurred in about 1807, and since 1909 there have been waves of budworm outbreaks throughout the eastern United States and Canada. In Canada, the major outbreaks occurred in periods circa 1910–20, c. 1940–50, and c. 1970–80, each of which impacted millions of hectares of forest. Longer-term tree-ring studies suggest that spruce budworm outbreaks have been recurring approximately every three decades since the 16th century, and paleoecological studies suggest the spruce budworm has been breaking out in eastern North America for thousands of years.

<i>Habrobracon hebetor</i> Species of wasp

Habrobracon hebetor is a minute wasp of the family Braconidae that is an ectoparasitoid of several species of moth caterpillars. Well known hosts include the larval stage of Plodia interpunctella, the Indianmeal moth, the late larval stage of the Mediterranean flour moth and the almond moth, and the dried fruit moth. This parasitoid has been used commercially as a way to control pests without using chemical insecticides.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Variable checkerspot</span> Species of butterfly

The variable checkerspot or Chalcedon checkerspot is a butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. It is found in western North America, where its range stretches from Alaska in the north to Baja California in the south and extends east through the Rocky Mountains into Colorado, Montana, New Mexico and Wyoming. The butterfly is usually brown or black with extensive white and yellow checkering and some red coloration on the dorsal wing. Adult wingspan is 3.2–5.7 cm (1.3–2.2 in). Adult butterflies feed on nectar from flowers while larvae feed on a variety of plants including snowberry (Symphoricarpos), paintbrush (Castilleja), Buddleja, Diplacus aurantiacus and Scrophularia californica.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Confused flour beetle</span> Species of beetle

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<i>Utetheisa ornatrix</i> Species of moth

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Edith's checkerspot</span> Species of butterfly

Edith's checkerspot is a species of butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. It is a resident species of western North America and among the subspecies, entomologists have long been intrigued by their many phenotypic variations in coloration, wing length, and overall body size. Most populations are monophagous and rely on plants including Plantago erecta and Orthocarpus densiflorus as their host species in developing from eggs through to larvae, pupae, and mature butterflies. Males exhibit polygyny whereas females rarely mate more than once. Males devote most of their attention to mate acquisition, and such mate locating strategies such as hilltopping behavior have developed. Climate change and habitat destruction have impacted certain subspecies. Three subspecies in particular, Euphydryas editha quino, Euphydryas editha bayensis and Euphydryas editha taylori, are currently under protection via the Endangered Species Act.

<i>Zeiraphera canadensis</i> Species of moth

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<i>Cadra figulilella</i> Species of moth

Cadra figulilella, the raisin moth, is a moth of the family Pyralidae. The raisin moth is known most commonly as a pest that feeds on dried fruits, such as the raisin and date. It covers a range that includes much of the world, primarily situating itself in areas of California, Florida, the Eastern Mediterranean region, and some parts of Africa, Australia, and South America. The moth prefers to live in a hot, arid climate with little moisture and plentiful harvest for its larvae to feed on. Study of this species is important due to the vast amount of economic damage it causes yearly and worldwide to agriculture crops.

<i>Cadra calidella</i> Species of moth

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<i>Ostrinia furnacalis</i> Species of moth

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References

  1. ↑ Grabe, Albert (1942): Eigenartige Geschmacksrichtungen bei Kleinschmetterlingsraupen ["Strange tastes among micromoth caterpillars"]. Zeitschrift des Wiener Entomologen-Vereins27: 105–109 [in German]. PDF fulltext
  2. ↑ Sasaki, Tetsuhiko; Ishikawa, Hajime (1999-10-01). "Wolbachia Infections and Cytoplasmic Incompatibility in the Almond Moth and the Mediterranean Flour Moth". Zoological Science. 16 (5): 739–744. doi: 10.2108/zsj.16.739 . ISSN   0289-0003. S2CID   85734865.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Integrated management of insects in stored products. Subramanyam, Bhadriraju., Hagstrum, David W., 1944-. New York: M. Dekker. 1996. ISBN   978-0824795221. OCLC   32853462.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  4. ↑ Clarke, John Frederick Gates (1986): Pyralidae and Microlepidoptera of the Marquesas Archipelago. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology416: 1–485. PDF fulltext (214 MB!)
  5. 1 2 Burges, H. D.; Haskins, K. P. F. (May 1965). "Life-cycle of the tropical warehouse moth, Cadra cautella (Wlk.), at controlled temperatures and humidities". Bulletin of Entomological Research. 55 (4): 775–789. doi:10.1017/s0007485300049877. ISSN   1475-2670.
  6. ↑ Leonard LeCato, G. (1976). "Yield, development, and weight of Cadra cautella (Walker) and Plodia interpunctella (Hübner) on twenty-one diets derived from natural products". Journal of Stored Products Research. 12 (1): 43–47. doi:10.1016/0022-474x(76)90021-7.
  7. 1 2 Gordon, D. M.; Stewart, R. K. (1988). "Demographic Characteristics of the Stored-Products Moth Cadra cautella". Journal of Animal Ecology. 57 (2): 627–644. doi:10.2307/4929. JSTOR   4929.
  8. 1 2 3 McNamara, Kathryn B.; Elgar, Mark A.; Jones, Therésa M. (2008-07-01). "A longevity cost of re-mating but no benefits of polyandry in the almond moth, Cadra cautella". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 62 (9): 1433–1440. doi:10.1007/s00265-008-0573-9. ISSN   0340-5443. S2CID   37093852.
  9. ↑ Mullen, M. A.; Arbogast, R. T. (1977-10-01). "Influence of Substrate on Oviposition by Two Species of Stored-Product Moths". Environmental Entomology. 6 (5): 641–642. doi:10.1093/ee/6.5.641. ISSN   0046-225X.
  10. ↑ Steele, R. W. (April 1970). "Copulation and Oviposition Behaviour of Ephestia cautella (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Phycitidae)". Journal of Stored Products Research. 6 (3): 229–245. doi:10.1016/0022-474X(70)90013-5.
  11. 1 2 Press, J. W.; Cline, L. D.; Flaherty, B. R. (1982). "A Comparison of Two Parasitoids, Bracon hebetor (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) and Venturia canescens (Hymenoptera: Ichnemonidae), and a Predator Xylocoris flavipes (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) in Supressing Residual Populations of the Almond Moth, Ephestia cautella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)". Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society. 55 (4): 725–728. ISSN   0022-8567. JSTOR   25084352.
  12. ↑ Haines, C. P. (December 1981). "Laboratory studies on the role of an egg predator, Blattisocius tarsalis (Berlese) (Acari: Ascidae), in relation to the natural control of Ephestia Cautella (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in Warehouses". Bulletin of Entomological Research. 71 (4): 557–574. doi:10.1017/s0007485300010075. ISSN   1475-2670.
  13. ↑ Brower, John H.; Press, John W. (1990-06-01). "Interaction of Bracon hebetor (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) and Trichogramma pretiosum (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) in Suppressing Stored-Product Moth Populations in Small Inshell·Peanut Storages". Journal of Economic Entomology. 83 (3): 1096–1101. doi:10.1093/jee/83.3.1096. ISSN   0022-0493.
  14. ↑ Flanders, S. E. (1930). "Mass Production of Egg Parasites of the Genus Trichogramma". Hilgardia. 4 (16): 465–501. doi: 10.3733/hilg.v04n16p465 – via CAB Direct.
  15. ↑ Ikeda, Takashi; Ishikawa, Hajime; Sasaki, Tetsuhiko (2003-02-01). "Regulation of Wolbachia Density in the Mediterranean Flour Moth, Ephestia kuehniella, and the Almond Moth, Cadra cautella". Zoological Science. 20 (2): 153–157. doi: 10.2108/zsj.20.153 . ISSN   0289-0003. PMID   12655178. S2CID   8806495.
  16. ↑ McNamara, Kathryn B.; Jones, Therésa M.; Elgar, Mark A. (2007-06-01). "No cost of male mating experience on female reproductive success in the almond moth, Cadra cautella (Lepidoptera; Pyralidae)". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 61 (8): 1177–1184. doi:10.1007/s00265-006-0347-1. ISSN   0340-5443. S2CID   43892095.
  17. ↑ McNamara, Kathryn B.; Elgar, Mark A.; Jones, Therésa M. (2009). "Large spermatophores reduce female receptivity and increase male paternity success in the almond moth, Cadra cautella". Animal Behaviour. 77 (4): 931–936. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.01.007. S2CID   53148391.
  18. ↑ Gothilf, S.; Shaaya, E.; Levski, S. (1993-01-12). "Effect of sex, age and mating on attraction of Cadra cautella (Walker) (Lep., Phycitidae) to stored food". Journal of Applied Entomology. 116 (1–5): 139–144. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0418.1993.tb01180.x. ISSN   1439-0418. S2CID   84481614.
  19. 1 2 3 Barrer, P. M.; Hill, R. J. (1977-11-01). "Some Aspects of the Courtship Behaviour of Ephestia Cautella (walker) (lepidoptera: Phycitidae)". Australian Journal of Entomology. 16 (3): 301–312. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-6055.1977.tb00110.x . ISSN   1440-6055.
  20. ↑ McNamara, Kathryn B.; McKenzie, Julia L.; Elgar, Mark A.; Jones, Therésa M. (2012-08-01). "A female preference for experienced males in the almond moth, Cadra cautella". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 66 (8): 1141–1147. doi:10.1007/s00265-012-1366-8. hdl: 11343/283316 . ISSN   0340-5443. S2CID   17669452.
  21. ↑ McNamara, Kathryn B.; Elgar, Mark A.; Jones, Therésa M. (2008). "Seminal compounds, female receptivity and fitness in the almond moth, Cadra cautella". Animal Behaviour. 76 (3): 771–777. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.04.018. S2CID   53144161.
  22. ↑ McNamara, Kathryn B.; Elgar, Mark A.; Jones, Therésa M. (2010-01-01). "Adult Responses to Larval Population Size in the Almond Moth, Cadra cautella". Ethology. 116 (1): 39–46. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.2009.01714.x. ISSN   1439-0310.
  23. ↑ Grant, G. G.; Smithwick, E. B.; Brady, U. E. (1975-06-01). "Courtship behavior of phycitid moths. II. Behavioral and pheromonal isolation of Plodia interpunctella and Cadra cautella in the laboratory". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 53 (6): 827–832. doi:10.1139/z75-096. ISSN   0008-4301.
  24. ↑ Schöller, Matthias; Flinn, Paul W. (2000). "Parasitoids and Predators". Alternatives to Pesticides in Stored-Product IPM. Springer, Boston, MA. pp. 229–271. doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-4353-4_9. ISBN   9781461369561.
  25. ↑ Savela, Markku (2009): Markku Savela's Lepidoptera and some other life forms – Cadra cautella. Version of 2009-04-14. Retrieved 2010-04-10.
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