Angiopteris evecta

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King fern
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Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Division: Polypodiophyta
Class: Polypodiopsida
Order: Marattiales
Family: Marattiaceae
Genus: Angiopteris
Species:
A. evecta
Binomial name
Angiopteris evecta
Synonyms

See Synonyms section below

Angiopteris evecta, commonly known as the king fern, giant fern, elephant fern, oriental vessel fern, Madagascar tree fern, or mule's Foot fern, is a very large rainforest fern in the family Marattiaceae native to most parts of Southeast Asia and Oceania. It has a history dating back about 300 million years, and is believed to have the longest fronds of any fern in the world.

Contents

Description

Angiopteris evecta is a self-supporting evergreen perennial fern with very large bipinnate fronds. The trunk-like rhizome is massive, measuring up to 1 m (3 ft 3 in) in diameter. The older portions of the rhizome lie on the ground while the newer growth may rise vertically up to 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) high.

The arching, glossy green fronds, which emerge from the tip of the rhizome, may reach up to 9 m (30 ft) long and 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) wide, with the fleshy green petiole (leaf stem) making up 2 m (6 ft 7 in) of that length. [4] [5] [6] [7] They are said to be the longest fern fronds in the world, [8] [9] [10] and despite their enormous size they have no woody strengthening tissues in the fronds to keep them erect—instead they are supported entirely by the hydraulic pressure of the sap. [11] On either side of the petiole where it arises from the rhizome there are flat, rounded, leathery, ear-shaped stipules, known as "auricles", [12] [13] which can measure up to 15 cm (5.9 in) in diameter.

The fronds are bipinnate with about 9 to 12 pairs of pinnae measuring up to 150 cm (59 in) long and 45 cm (18 in) wide. Each pinnae carries about 30 to 40 pairs of pinnules that measure around 13 by 2 cm (5.1 by 0.8 in), and both the main rachis and the secondary rachillae (midribs) are pulvinate (swollen at the base). [5] [14] Sporangia are borne on the underside of the pinnules, very close to the margin, in clusters of 5 to 8 opposite pairs. [6] [11] Overall dimensions of this fern can be up to 7 m (23 ft) high by 16 m (52 ft) wide. [4] [6] [7] [15] [16]

Evolution

Fossilised fronds bearing a distinct similarity to this plant have been found in Paleozoic rocks from every continent, [11] a time when ferns and their relatives were the dominant plants on the planet. [8] [9] [10] [11] The geographically isolated communities seen today point to favourable climatic conditions being more widespread in the past. [4]

Taxonomy

021 Angiopteris evecta ryubintai.jpg

Angiopteris evecta was originally named and described as Polypodium evectum by Georg Forster in 1786, in his book Florulae Insularum Australium Prodromus . [17] It was moved to the genus Angiopteris in 1794 by Georg Franz Hoffmann, publishing in the journal Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis . [18] [19] A. evecta is the type species of the genus Angiopteris . [20]

Etymology

The genus name comes from the Ancient Greek aggeion, a vessel, and pteris, a fern, and is a reference to the sporangia. [14] The species epithet is the Latin adjective evectus meaning to carry out, bring forth, raise, or elevate. [21]

Synonyms

As of April 2023, Plants of the World Online lists 26 synonyms for Angiopteris evecta, [22] which are considered by some authorities to potentially be distinct species, calling for a more thorough taxonomic investigation. [5] [15] [23] This number is down from the 73 synonyms listed in 2020.

Homotypic

Heterotypic

  • Callipteris heterophylla T.Moore
  • Angiopteris acrocarpa de Vriese
  • Angiopteris alata Nadeaud
  • Angiopteris auratade Vriese
  • Angiopteris beecheyanade Vriese
  • Angiopteris brongniartianade Vriese
  • Angiopteris canaliculata Holttum
  • Angiopteris commutata C.Presl
  • Angiopteris cupreatade Vriese
  • Angiopteris elongata Hieron.
  • Angiopteris erecta Desv.
  • Angiopteris evanidostriataHieron.
  • Angiopteris evecta var. rurutensis E.D.Br.
  • Angiopteris hellwigiiHieron.
  • Angiopteris intricataC.Presl
  • Angiopteris lasegueanade Vriese
  • Angiopteris lauterbachiiHieron.
  • Angiopteris longifolia Grev. & Hook.
  • Angiopteris lorentzii Rosenst.
  • Angiopteris naumanniiHieron.
  • Angiopteris novocaledonicaHieron.
  • Angiopteris palauensisHieron.
  • Angiopteris palmiformis(Cav.) C.Chr.
  • Clementea palmiformisCav.

Distribution and habitat

Angiopteris evecta is native to southeast Asia and Oceania, from Sri Lanka and Bangladesh in the west through to Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia in the east, and from Japan in the north to northern and eastern Australia in the south. It has been introduced to most of the rest of tropical Asia, as well as Madagascar and parts of the tropical Americas. It has become naturalised in Hawaii, Jamaica, Costa Rica and Cuba. [4] [5] [15] [22] [24] [25]

The species grows in rainforest on very rich soils, often of volcanic origin [4] [15] and prefers a very warm wet climate. It is usually an understorey plant in well developed rainforest, especially along creek banks in deep sheltered gullies where there is good drainage and a plentiful supply of fresh water, but is occasionally found in more exposed situations. [4] [16] [26] The preferred annual mean temperature range is 19–27 °C (66–81 °F) and annual precipitation between 1,000 and 5,400 mm (39 and 213 in). It grows at elevations from sea level to 1,500 m (4,900 ft). [5] [7] [15]

Cultural uses

The starchy rhizomes are eaten after long processing to remove toxins, used to perfume coconut oil, to flavour rice and to produce an intoxicating drink. [4] [5] [7] The 1889 book The Useful Native Plants of Australia records Indigenous Australians ate the pith of this fern. [27]

Conservation

The conservation status of Angiopteris evecta varies from place to place. For example in Australia's Northern Territory it is listed as vulnerable, with only one small population in north eastern Arnhem Land; [9] [28] in New South Wales, where suitable habitat is restricted to a small area in the north east corner of the state and only a single, non-reproductive specimen is known, [4] it is listed as endangered. [16] [28] However in the state of Queensland, which lies in between the other two states and where there is an abundance of suitable habitat, it is listed as least concern. [1] [16] [28]

As of 13 April 2023, this species has not been assessed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

Invasive potential

When introduced to an area with a suitable climate, Angiopteris evecta can establish dense stands that inhibit local species. [29] It is listed as invasive in Costa Rica, Cuba, Jamaica and Hawaii, where in each case it has escaped from plantings in botanic gardens. It has also been introduced to many tropical countries and has repeatedly escaped from cultivation. [5]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marattiaceae</span> Family of ferns

Marattiaceae is the only family of extant (living) ferns in the order Marattiales. In the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016, Marattiales is the only order in the subclass Marattiidae. The family has six genera and about 110 species. Many are different in appearance from other ferns, having large fronds and fleshy rootstocks.

<i>Dicksonia antarctica</i> Species of fern

Dicksonia antarctica, the soft tree fern or man fern, is a species of evergreen tree fern native to eastern Australia, ranging from south-east Queensland, coastal New South Wales and Victoria to Tasmania.

<i>Onoclea sensibilis</i> Species of fern

Onoclea sensibilis, the sensitive fern, also known as the bead fern, is a coarse-textured, medium to large-sized deciduous perennial fern. The name comes from its sensitivity to frost, the fronds dying quickly when first touched by it. It is sometimes treated as the only species in Onoclea, but some authors do not consider the genus monotypic.

<i>Osmunda regalis</i> Species of fern

Osmunda regalis, or royal fern, is a species of deciduous fern, native to Europe, Africa and Asia, growing in woodland bogs and on the banks of streams. The species is sometimes known as flowering fern due to the appearance of its fertile fronds.

<i>Polypodium vulgare</i> Species of ferns in the family Polypodiaceae

Polypodium vulgare, the common polypody, is an evergreen fern of the family Polypodiaceae. The name is derived from poly (many) and pous, podos. Polypody has traditional uses in cooking for its aroma and sweet taste, and in herbal medicine as a purgative and vermifuge.

<i>Zealandia pustulata</i> Species of fern

Zealandia pustulata is a species of fern native to eastern Australia and New Zealand. It is commonly referred to as kangaroo fern because of its mature leaves tend to resemble the shape of a kangaroo foot. It is also referred to as hound's tongue, and as kōwaowao and pāraharaha in Māori.

<i>Angiopteris</i> Genus of plants

Angiopteris is a genus of huge evergreen ferns from the family Marattiaceae, found throughout the paleotropics from Madagascar to the South Pacific islands. Species of smaller stature with elongate synangia and creeping rhizomes are sometimes segregated into the genus Archangiopteris, and a once-pinnate monotypic segregate genus has been called Macroglossum, but molecular data supports inclusion of these taxa within a broad concept of Angiopteris.

<i>Diplazium australe</i> Species of fern

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<i>Pteridium esculentum</i> Species of plant

Pteridium esculentum, commonly known as bracken fern, Austral bracken or simply bracken, is a species of the bracken genus native to a number of countries in the Southern Hemisphere. Esculentum means edible. First described as Pteris esculenta by German botanist Georg Forster in 1786, it gained its current binomial name in 1908. The Eora people of the Sydney region knew it as gurgi.

<i>Gleichenia dicarpa</i> Species of plant

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<i>Gleichenia polypodioides</i> Species of fern

Gleichenia polypodioides (L.) Sm., commonly known as coral fern, kystervaring or ystervaring due to its glabrous, brown, wiry stipes. The species is widespread in south- and east tropical Africa, southern Africa and the western Indian Ocean region. It occurs naturally in a broad coastal belt in South Africa, Lesotho, Eswatini, Angola, Malawi, Burundi, Tanzania, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Mauritius, Réunion, Amsterdam Island and Madagascar, and was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1771 under the name Onoclea polypodioides. Often forming dense and impenetrable thickets, sometimes over large areas, this rhizomatous perennial is an important pioneer in disturbed areas such as pine plantations. It is often mistakenly seen as an exotic invader rather than as a useful rehabilitation plant, a source of peat and growing medium, while showing exceptional resistance to herbicides.

Rhizome brown, 1–2.5 mm. in diam., creeping, with long-spined dark-brown scales up to 0.5 mm. in diam., with fronds spaced 2–20 cm. apart. Stipe castaneous, up to 60 cm. long and up to 1.5 mm. in diam., glabrous or with a few scales similar to those on the rhizome, shallowly sulcate. Frond bifurcate to reniform-lunate in outline, with 1 level of false dichotomy in each lateral branch system arising from each side of the terminal bud; all branches bearing distant foliar segments. Aborted apical buds up to 1.2 mm. long, clothed in dark-brown lanceolate laciniate scales. Pinnules linear, up to 7 x 0.75 cm., pinnate, usually glabrous, divided into sessile rounded entire triangular lobes, 3 x 2 mm., green to glaucous below. Sori partially immersed in the lamina, consisting of 2–4 sporangia, each in a separate but adjoining pit.

<i>Polypodium cambricum</i> Species of fern in the family Polypodiaceae

Polypodium cambricum, the southern polypody, limestone polypody, or Welsh polypody, is a species of fern in the family Polypodiaceae, native to southern and western Europe where it grows on shady rocks, near the coasts of the Mediterranean Basin and in the mountains of Atlantic Europe. It is a spreading, terrestrial, deciduous fern growing to 60 centimetres (24 in) tall, with pinnate fronds. The sori are yellow in winter.

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<i>Dipteris</i> Genus of ferns

Dipteris is a genus of about seven species of ferns, native to tropical regions across the world, particularly Asia, with a species in northeastern Queensland in Australia. It is one of two genera in the family Dipteridaceae.

<i>Dipteris conjugata</i> Species of plant

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<i>Polypodium</i> Genus of ferns in the family Polypodiaceae

Polypodium is a genus of ferns in the family Polypodiaceae, subfamily Polypodioideae, according to the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I). The genus is widely distributed throughout the world, with the highest species diversity in the tropics. The name is derived from Ancient Greek poly (πολύ) "many" + podion (πόδιον) "little foot", on account of the foot-like appearance of the rhizome and its branches. They are commonly called polypodies or rockcap ferns, but for many species unique vernacular names exist.

<i>Myriopteris alabamensis</i> Species of fern

Myriopteris alabamensis, the Alabama lip fern, is a moderately-sized fern of the United States and Mexico, a member of the family Pteridaceae. Unlike many members of its genus, its leaves have a few hairs on upper and lower surfaces, or lack them entirely. One of the cheilanthoid ferns, it was usually classified in the genus Cheilanthes as Cheilanthes alabamensis until 2013, when the genus Myriopteris was again recognized as separate from Cheilanthes. It typically grows in shade on limestone outcrops.

Argyrochosma connectens is a small cheilanthoid fern endemic to Sichuan, China. It is the only member of its genus known from Asia. Relatively rare, it is found growing in the crevices of limestone rocks in hot, dry valleys. The species was long classified in the genus Pellaea, but after a phylogenetic study in 2015 was transferred to Argyrochosma.

References

  1. 1 2 "Species Profile - Environment, land and water - Queensland Government". Queensland Department of Environment and Science. Queensland Government. Retrieved 28 October 2020.
  2. ↑ "Vascular Plants APC - Angiopteris evecta (G.Forst.) Hoffm". Australian Plant Census (APC). Australian Government. Retrieved 5 December 2020.
  3. ↑ "Angiopteris evecta - International Plant Names Index". International Plant Names Index . The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Harvard University Herbaria & Libraries and Australian National Botanic Gardens. Retrieved 5 December 2020.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "Plants, Flowering Calendar, Botany, Plant Science - Australian Botanic Garden Mount Annan". Australian Botanic Garden, Mount Annan. Royal Botanic Gardens and Domain Trust. Retrieved 5 December 2020.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Rojas-Sandoval, J. (2020). "Angiopteris evecta (king fern)". Invasive Species Compendium . Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International (CABI). doi:10.1079/ISC.22973091.20203483224. S2CID   242558364 . Retrieved 5 December 2020.
  6. 1 2 3 "Cook Islands Biodiversity : Angiopteris evecta - King Fern". The Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust. Cook Islands Government. Retrieved 5 December 2020.
  7. 1 2 3 4 "GISD". Global Invasive Species Database. Invasive Species Specialist Group. Retrieved 6 December 2020.
  8. 1 2 "Nature, culture and history - Goldfield trail, Wooroonooran National Park - Parks and forests - Department of Environment and Science, Queensland". Department of Environment and Science, Queensland Government. Queensland Government. Retrieved 6 December 2020.
  9. 1 2 3 "Passion for Plants - King of the Ferns - Australian Broadcasting Corporation". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 6 December 2020.
  10. 1 2 "Ferns - Wet Tropics Management Authority". Wet Tropics Management Authority. Australian Government. Retrieved 6 December 2020.
  11. 1 2 3 4 Jones, David L.; Clemesha, Stephen C. (1989). Australian Fern and Fern Allies (2 ed.). Reed Books. p. 46. ISBN   0-7301-0298-X.
  12. ↑ "Propagating King Fern - Fact Sheets - Gardening Australia". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
  13. ↑ "Short Cuts". Australian Native Plants Society (Australia). Australian Native Plants Society (Australia). Retrieved 6 December 2020.
  14. 1 2 Camus, Josephine M. (2020). "Angiopteris". Flora of Australia . Australian Biological Resources Study, Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment: Canberra. Retrieved 18 August 2021.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 "Angiopteris evecta in Flora of China @ efloras.org". Flora of China. eFloras.org. Retrieved 5 December 2020.
  16. 1 2 3 4 "Giant Fern - profile - NSW Environment, Energy and Science". Office of Environment and Heritage. New South Wales Government. Retrieved 5 December 2020.
  17. ↑ "Polypodium evectum". Australian Plant Name Index (APNI). Centre for Australian National Biodiversity Research, Australian Government. Retrieved 16 October 2020.
  18. ↑ "Angiopteris evecta". Australian Plant Name Index (APNI). Centre for Australian National Biodiversity Research, Australian Government. Retrieved 16 October 2020.
  19. ↑ "Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum v.12 1793-1794". HathiTrust Digital Library. Retrieved 16 August 2021.
  20. ↑ "Angiopteris - International Plant Names Index". International Plant Names Index. The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Harvard University Herbaria & Libraries and Australian National Botanic Gardens. Retrieved 5 December 2020.
  21. ↑ Lewis, Charlton T. "An Elementary Latin Dictionary". Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved 18 August 2021.
  22. 1 2 "Angiopteris evecta (G.Forst) Hoffm. - Plants of the World Online - Kew Science". Plants of the World Online . Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew . Retrieved 13 April 2023.
  23. ↑ "GISD". Global Invasive Species Database (GISD). International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Retrieved 5 December 2020.
  24. ↑ "Angiopteris evecta (BQGEV)[Overview] - EPPO Global Database". EPPO Global Database. European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO). Retrieved 5 October 2020.
  25. ↑ "Oriental vessel fern - Encyclopedia of Life". Encyclopedia of Life. Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved 6 December 2020.
  26. ↑ "Angiopteris evecta (G.Forst.) Hoffm". Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 5 December 2020.
  27. ↑ J. H. Maiden (1889). The useful native plants of Australia : Including Tasmania. Turner and Henderson, Sydney.
  28. 1 2 3 "Angiopteris evecta - Atlas of Living Australia". Atlas of Living Australia. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). Retrieved 24 November 2020.
  29. ↑ Christenhusz, M. J. M.; Toivonen, T. K. (2008). "Giants invading the tropics: the oriental vessel fern, Angiopteris evecta (Marattiaceae)". Biological Invasions. 10 (8): 1215–1228. doi:10.1007/s10530-007-9197-7. S2CID   23494931 . Retrieved 19 August 2021.
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