Bangiales

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Bangiales
Temporal range: Stenian to present, Disputed Rafatazmia from late Statherian
~1047–0 Ma
Contributiones ad algologiam et fungologiam (1875.) (20658919796).jpg
Bangia spp.
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
(unranked): Archaeplastida
Division: Rhodophyta
Class: Bangiophyceae
Subclass: Bangiophycidae
Order: Bangiales
Nägeli, 1847
Families

Bangiales is an order of multicellular red algae of the class Bangiophyceae containing the families Bangiaceae, Granufilaceae, [1] and possibly the extinct genus Rafatazmia with one species, Rafatazmia chitrakootensis. [2] They are one of the oldest eukaryotic organisms, possibly dating back to 1.6 billion years old. Many species are used today as food in different cultures worldwide. Their sizes range from microscopic ( Bangiomorpha ) to up to two meters long ( Wildemania occidentalis ). [3] Many of its species are affected by Pythium porphyrae , a parasitic oomycete. [4] [5] [6] [7] Similar to many other species of red algae, they reproduce both asexually and sexually. They can be both filamentous or foliose, and are found worldwide. [8]

History

The first categorization of red algae currently placed inside Bangiales was the now-deprecated genus Phyllona by botanist John Hill in 1773. Bangiales itself was first categorized by Carl Nägeli in 1847. However, Bangiaceae had been categorized seventeen years prior in 1830 by Jean Étienne Duby and Bangia even earlier in 1819, by Hans Christian Lyngbye. Between 1819 and 1833, there were many discoveries by botanists like Carl Adolph Agardh and Gaillon; however many early genera were later deprecated and recategorized. No new discoveries were made until the late 19th century, where taxa such as Wildemania and Pyropia were discovered and classified. More modern discoveries include a new family (Granufilaceae) and several new genera, like Clymene , Neoporphyra , and Neothemis . As of 2024, the newest genus, Kuwaitiella , was discovered in 2022. [1] Ongoing research continues to rearrange species, as recent genetic studies have revealed that many early morphologically classified genera were incorrect. [9]

Human use

Sheets of nori. Nori.jpg
Sheets of nori.

Members of Bangiaceae, one of only two known living classes of Bangiales, are used to make laverbread, rong biển, edible seaweed, zǐcài, gim, [10] and nori. Most edible farmed seaweeds within Bangiaceae are made from two genera of red algae, Porphyra and Pyropia . They are farmed in the ocean in countries including Ireland, the United Kingdom, [11] [12] Japan, Korea, and China. [13] Pyropia is one of the most farmed seaweeds for human consumption. [14] The farming of Pyropia species have been recorded as early as the 17th century, however industrial-scale farms only became common in the 1960s after the availability of artificial seed production and synthetic nets. Specifically, P. tenera and P. yezoensis are mainly used to make most edible seaweed products. Total Pyropia yields have reached three million tonnes as of 2020, with China contributing over three-quarters of the harvests. [15] Pythium porphyrae , a parasitic oomycete, causes red rot disease or akasugare which severely harms seaweed farms in Japan and Korea. There are other pests to these organisms, including Olpidiopsis pyropiae , another oomycete. These diseases cause over US$10 million annually in damages to Pyropia harvests and Pythium porphyrae alone may cause crop losses of up to 20%. Pythium porphyrae has only been naturally observed infecting two species in Bangiales: Pyropia plicata and Pyropia yezoensis . [16] However, Diehl et al. (2017) have found that the parasite can successfully infect other Pyropia and Porphyra species. [6] Some Porphyra species can be used to make biomaterials for biomedicines. [17] Despite the foliose algae being the most commonly farmed species, the filamentous algae are also sometimes consumed. Both types of consumed algae have nutritional value; [18] nori contains nutrients including proteins, vitamins (especially Vitamin A, Vitamin B1, Vitamin B2, and Vitamin C), minerals (including potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, and zinc), and fibers. [19] Many seaweed products contain high amounts of heavy elements like iodine and iron, [20] along with toxic elements including cadmium and arsenic. [21] Despite their classification as red algae, the edible species will turn green when prepared. This is evident in products like gim. [22]

Description

A specimen of Bangia fuscopurpurea, a filamentous species, from the New York Public Library. Bangia fusco-purpurea. (3096195122).jpg
A specimen of Bangia fuscopurpurea, a filamentous species, from the New York Public Library.

As of 2011, there are seven filamentous genera and eight foliose genera, however this has since been increased to fourteen foliose genera. [23] [1] [9]

Filamentous organisms

Filamentous red algae have thin strands. Generally, the filamentous species are much smaller; Bangia 's filaments are only a few micrometers thick. [24] The largest filamentous species can grow up to 35 centimeters of length. [25] Despite their small size and thin thalli, they are commercially used as food in East Asian cultures, where they can be known as "红毛菜" (hóng máo cài). [18] They include Bangia , Dione , Kuwaitiella , Minerva , Pseudobangia , Granufilum (in Granufilaceae), and the extinct Bangiomorpha .

Foliose organisms

The foliose species are similar to large, extremely flat sheets of paper. They are one cell thick, and are most widely used in human consumption due to their macroscopic size and easier accessibility. [26] They are also called the "bladed" algae, referring to their extreme thinness. [27] They include Boreophyllum , Clymene , Fuscifolium , Lysithea , Miuraea , Neomiuraea , Neoporphyra , Neopyropia , Neothemis , Phycocalidia , Porphyra , Pyropia , Uedaea , and Wildemania .

Distribution

These red algae are found globally in rivers and oceans. [28] Oceanic species are generally littoral, living near the shore in shallow water or in the intertidal zones. [29] Some species of genera including Porphyra grow on coastal rocks. [30] They are common in temperate areas such as the British Isles, Japan, Korea, and New Zealand, [31] with New Zealand alone hosting over 30 species. [6] Some species, like Wildemania spp., prefer cold water, [32] while other genera, like Phycocalidia , prefer tropical zones. [33]

Reproduction

Red algae of the order Bangiales undergo an unusual triphasic haploid-diploid life cycle; they can alternate between sexual and asexual reproduction. The distinction is primarily caused by environmental factors. [34] They were originally proposed to have two phases in its life cycle, the diploid sporophyte and the haploid gametophyte. The sporophyte stage releases spores into the environment which then grow into full-sized algae, while the gametophyte stage requires two parents to undergo sexual reproduction which leads to the sporophyte stage again. However, these algae were recently discovered to undergo a third, diploid phase of life cycle known as the conchosporophyte. The conchosporophyte is parasitically grown on the sporophyte, and is thus an asexual manner of reproduction which results in an exact copy of its parent's genome. The conchosporophyte was previously believed to be part of the sporophyte, however modern research suggests otherwise. Despite the phylogenetic differences of the filamentous and foliose algae, both types reproduce in this manner. [8] [35]

Taxonomy

Bangiales includes two families and possibly Rafatazmia , for a total of 20 to 22 genera in Bangiaceae, 1 in Granufilum, and 1 incertae sedis . Traditionally, Bangiaceae only contained two genera, the filamentous Bangia and the foliose Porphyra . [27] In 2011, there were 15 genera and 185 species, however a large reanalysis in 2020 reorganized many genera which brings the total to 22 to 24 as of 2024. [36] [37] [23] [1]

Bangiaceae

Pyropia plicata, a species of the genus Pyropia that lives in the intertidal zone. Pyropia plicata W.A.Nelson (AM AK294882-4).jpg
Pyropia plicata , a species of the genus Pyropia that lives in the intertidal zone.
Bangiomorpha pubescens Bangiomorpha pubescens ; clustered uniseriate filaments with basal holdfasts (Lower Hunting Formation, Stenium Period, Somerset Island, Canadian Arctic Islands).png
Bangiomorpha pubescens

Granufilaceae

Incertae sedis

Records

If Rafatazmia is confirmed to be included in this order, then it would contain the oldest confirmed multicellular eukaryotic organism, dating to around 1.6 billion years during the Statherian period of the Paleoproterozoic era. [38] In addition, Bangiomorpha is an extinct genus of algae in Bangiaceae containing one species, Bangiomorpha pubescens, which was the first confirmed organism to undergo sexual reproduction approximately one billion years ago during the Stenian period. [39] Modern record-holders include Porphyra purpurea , with 251 genes comprising one of the largest known plastid genomes, [40] and Pyropia tenera, as the globally second-most-farmed seaweed only behind Saccharina japonica . [41]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nori</span> Edible seaweed species of the red algae genus Pyropia

Nori(海苔) is a dried edible seaweed used in Japanese cuisine, usually made from species of the red algae genus Pyropia, including P. yezoensis and P. tenera. It has a strong and distinctive flavor, and is generally made into flat sheets and used to wrap rolls of sushi or onigiri.

<i>Chondrus crispus</i> Species of edible alga

Chondrus crispus—commonly called Irish moss or carrageenan moss —is a species of red algae which grows abundantly along the rocky parts of the Atlantic coasts of Europe and North America. In its fresh condition it is soft and cartilaginous, varying in color from a greenish-yellow, through red, to a dark purple or purplish-brown. The principal constituent is a mucilaginous body, made of the polysaccharide carrageenan, which constitutes 55% of its dry weight. The organism also consists of nearly 10% dry weight protein and about 15% dry weight mineral matter, and is rich in iodine and sulfur. When softened in water it has a sea-like odour. Because of the abundant cell wall polysaccharides, it will form a jelly when boiled, containing from 20 to 100 times its weight of water.

Pyropia columbina, Southern laver, karengo in the Māori language and luche in the Spanish language, is a species of edible seaweed traditionally harvested by South Island Māori in New Zealand and Chilote people in Chile. It is closely related to Japanese Nori and Welsh laverbread.

<i>Porphyra</i> Genus of seaweed

Porphyra is a genus of coldwater seaweeds that grow in cold, shallow seawater. More specifically, it belongs to red algae phylum of laver species, comprising approximately 70 species. It grows in the intertidal zone, typically between the upper intertidal zone and the splash zone in cold waters of temperate oceans. In East Asia, it is used to produce the sea vegetable products nori and gim. There are considered to be 60–70 species of Porphyra worldwide and seven around Britain and Ireland, where it has been traditionally used to produce edible sea vegetables on the Irish Sea coast. The species Porphyra purpurea has one of the largest plastid genomes known, with 251 genes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red algae</span> Division of plant life

Red algae, or Rhodophyta, are one of the oldest groups of eukaryotic algae. The Rhodophyta comprises one of the largest phyla of algae, containing over 7,000 currently recognized species with taxonomic revisions ongoing. The majority of species (6,793) are found in the Florideophyceae (class), and mostly consist of multicellular, marine algae, including many notable seaweeds. Red algae are abundant in marine habitats but relatively rare in freshwaters. Approximately 5% of red algae species occur in freshwater environments, with greater concentrations found in warmer areas. Except for two coastal cave dwelling species in the asexual class Cyanidiophyceae, there are no terrestrial species, which may be due to an evolutionary bottleneck in which the last common ancestor lost about 25% of its core genes and much of its evolutionary plasticity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Edible seaweed</span> Algae that can be eaten and used for culinary purposes

Edible seaweed, or sea vegetables, are seaweeds that can be eaten and used for culinary purposes. They typically contain high amounts of fiber. They may belong to one of several groups of multicellular algae: the red algae, green algae, and brown algae. Seaweeds are also harvested or cultivated for the extraction of polysaccharides such as alginate, agar and carrageenan, gelatinous substances collectively known as hydrocolloids or phycocolloids. Hydrocolloids have attained commercial significance, especially in food production as food additives. The food industry exploits the gelling, water-retention, emulsifying and other physical properties of these hydrocolloids.

Bangia is an extant genus of division Rhodophyta that grows in marine or freshwater habitats. Bangia has small thalli with rapid growth and high reproductive output, and exhibits behavior characteristic of r-selected species. The plants are attached by down-growing rhizoids, usually in dense purple-black to rust-colored clumps. The chloroplasts of Bangia, like others in the division Rhodophyta, contain chlorophyll a and sometimes chlorophyll d, as well as accessory pigments such as phycobilin pigments and xanthophylls. Depending on the relative proportions of these pigments and the light conditions, the overall color of the plant can range from green to red to purple to grey; however, the red pigment, phycoerythrin, is usually dominant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gamet</span> Dried edible seaweed from the Philippines

Gamet is a traditional dried edible seaweed from Ilocos Norte and Cagayan of the Philippines, particularly from the town of Burgos. Gamet are dried into sheets or thin cakes called pedazo, which are characteristically purplish-black in color. It is used widely in soups, salads, omelets and other dishes, in the cuisines of the northern Philippines.

<i>Polysiphonia morrowii</i> Species of alga

Polysiphonia morrowii is a species of red algae native to Northeast Asia. It has become an invasive species in Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and South America.

<i>Pyropia tenera</i> Species of seaweed

Pyropia tenera, also known as gim or nori, is a red algal species in the genus Pyropia. The specific name, tenera, means "delicate" and alludes to its small size. It typically grows to lengths between 20 and 50 cm. It is most typically found in the western Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean.

Porphyra cinnamomea is a red alga species in the genus Porphyra, known from New Zealand. It is monostromatic, monoecious, and grows in the intertidal zone, predominantly on rock substrata. With P. coleana, P. rakiura and P. virididentata, they can be distinguished by morphology, as well as geographical, ecological and seasonal distribution patterns, and importantly, chromosome numbers, which in this species n = 3. Finally, these four species are distinguished by a particular nucleotide sequence at the 18S rDNA locus.

<i>Clymene coleana</i> Species of alga

Clymene coleana, formerly known as Porphyra cinnamomea, is a red alga species in the family Bangiaceae. It is the only species in the monotypic genus Clymene. This species is endemic to New Zealand.

Pyropia rakiura, formerly known as Porphyra rakiura, is a red alga species in the genus Pyropia, known from New Zealand. It is monostromatic, monoecious, and grows in the intertidal zone, predominantly on rock substrata. With P. cinnamomea, P. coleana and P. virididentata, they can be distinguished by morphology, as well as geographical, ecological and seasonal distribution patterns, and importantly, chromosome numbers, which in this species n = 2. Finally, these four species are distinguished by a particular nucleotide sequence at the 18S rDNA locus.

Pyropia virididentata, formerly known as Porphyra virididentata, is a red alga species in the genus Pyropia. It is endemic to New Zealand. It is monostromatic, monoecious, and grows in the intertidal zone, predominantly on rock substrata. With Porphyra cinnamomea, Pyropia rakiura and Clymene coleana, they can be distinguished by morphology, as well as geographical, ecological and seasonal distribution patterns, and importantly, chromosome numbers, which in this species n = 3. Finally, these four species are distinguished by a particular nucleotide sequence at the 18S rDNA locus.

<i>Pyropia</i> Genus of algae

Pyropia is a genus of red algae in the family Bangiaceae. It is found around the world in intertidal zones and shallow water. The genus has folding frond-like blades which are either red, brown or green. Some Pyropia species are used to create nori, and are thus important subjects for aquaculture.

Pythium porphyrae, is a parasitic species of oomycete in the family Pythiaceae. It is the cause of red rot disease or red wasting disease, also called akagusare (赤ぐされ) in Japanese. The specific epithet porphyrae (πορφυρα) stems from the genus of one of its common hosts, Porphyra, and the purple-red color of the lesions on the thallus of the host. However, many of its hosts have been moved from the genus Porphyra to Pyropia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bangiaceae</span> Family of algae

Bangiaceae is a family of red algae in the order Bangiales. It contains laver, used to make laverbread, and various species in the genus of Pyropia are used to make nori.

Kathleen "Kay" Margaret Cole was a Canadian phycologist, known as one of the world's leading experts in the cytology of marine algae. In 1998 the Canadian Botanical Society awarded her the George Lawson Medal for lifetime achievement.

Dione arcuata, commonly known as eyelash seaweed, is the only species of the red algae genus Dione. The specific name arcuata comes from Latin and refers to the bow-like curved shape of the algae, while the generic name Dione is another name for the goddess Venus. It is made of filaments that are around 1.5 centimeters long; they are curved, wide, and do not split into branches.

Kuwaitiella rubra is a species of filamentous red algae of the family Bangiaceae. It is the only species in its genus Kuwaitiella. It was discovered in 2022 by a team of five scientists in Kuwait, giving the name.

References

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