In autumn of 1463, Republic of Venice opened negotiations with Uzun Hasan. In 1464, Uzun Hasan intervened in central Anatolian affairs. Although Mehmed occupied Karaman in 1468, he was unable to subjugate a number of Turkoman tribes living in the mountains which extended to the Mediterranean coast. These tribes were not subdued for the next fifty years, and from time to time rose in revolt around pretenders to the throne of Karamanids. After the Ottoman occupation of Karaman, Uzun Hasan adopted a more aggressive policy. By 1471, the problem of Karaman had become a serious threat to the Ottoman power. Uzun Hasan formed alliance with the Venetians and established contacts with the Knights of Rhodes, Kingdom of Cyprus and the Bey of Alaiye. He also intended to establish a direct contact with Venice by marching on the Mediterranean coast through the Taurus mountains, then controlled by the Turkoman tribes. Although a few Venetian ships landed on the coast, they could not find Uzun Hasan's men. In 1472, a crusader fleet attacked the Ottoman coasts. Uzun Hasan with Karamanid forces drove the Ottomans from Karaman and marched on Bursa. However, Mehmed repulsed the invasion, and formed an army of 70,000 men. In addition to his regular army, he had mercenaries from his Muslim and Christian subjects.[12]
Letters and developments
At this time when the war preparations began, Uzun Hasan increased his courage and sent a letter to the Ottomans, asking for Cappadocia and Trabzon to be given to him. Thereupon, in a letter sent by the sultan to Uzun Hasan:
Before this, you were saved from my wrath by your mother's request. We accepted you as having found the right path and forgave you. However, it is forbidden for an unbelieving Turkmen like you to claim sultanate and independence in my time. It was because we ignored the pride and grandeur you showed in your own land, and even all your power and enthusiasm, that you overcame a few like yourself through violence. Despite this, we are aware that he tortured people by forgetting about my privacy and living comfortably under my just will by sending soldiers to Tokat and then to Karaman countries. That's why we decided to move in the spring of this year to kill you and destroy your country. Forgiving you is definitely not considered. Don't bother in vain. Do you think that destroying provinces is sultanate? Our sword must be stained with blood on your chest because you violated our lands without hesitation or fear. Come to the square if you are brave. Don't go from one hole to another like a woman, make your preparations and don't say you weren't informed.
In this letter, Mehmed also informed Uzun Hasan when he would move. Mehmed, who had always taken care to hide his wars from even his closest friends, did the exact opposite this time. He did not hesitate to announce this not only to Uzun Hasan but also to others.[13]
Walking and battle
Mehmed the Conqueror's bilingual (Ottoman and Chagatai) Fetihname (Declaration of conquest) after the battle
Preparations for war began in all provinces of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans, who spent the autumn and winter of 1472 making preparations, decided on BursaYenisehir as the meeting place of the main army. The forces gathered from Rumelia passed to Anatolia from Gallipoli. Just as their collection was over, the sultan set out at the head of his forces in Istanbul and came to Yenişehir on April 11, 1473. The governor of Karaman, Prince Mustafa, and the governor of Amasya, Prince Bayezid, joined the army with their forces. In this way, the Ottoman army reached 85,000 people.[14]
The army's arrival in Sivas created great satisfaction in the people of Sivas. But after that things got difficult. Because from now on, the army entered a very mountainous and steep terrain. While the high mountains were being crossed, the Ottoman army was caught in a snowstorm.[15]
Even though the army traveled for more than 40 days, there was still no news from Uzun Hasan. However, Turkish raiders were attacked by Uzun Hasan's forces in Niksar. The Ottoman army, which threw them back, came to Koyulhisar and Şebinkarahisar, whose inhabitants had fled to the mountains, and after making some raids in this vicinity, came to Erzincan. Here Uzun Hasan's force of 5,000 men was encountered. But an Ottoman force of 5,000 men under the command of Turahanoğlu Ömer Bey defeated the Aq Qoyunlu. When it came to Tercan, many people who had taken refuge in the mountains came and surrendered to the Ottomans, who took booty and captives from them.
At this time, while the Ottoman army was marching eastwards following the Euphrates, Uzun Hasan's forces appeared on the opposite shores. But there were also some sandy shores in these places where the river widened. The Ottoman camp was established on the edge of one of them. Because it was estimated that Uzun Hasan's forces, encamped on the opposite shore, would pass back from one of these sandy places.[16]
The Ottomans decided to cross without leaving time for this. Has Murat Pasha would pass through the gate first. However, since he was very young and enterprising, Mahmud Pasha became his companion. But a disagreement started between Mahmud Pasha and Has Murad Pasha. Because when Uzun Hasan's forces made a fake retreat in front of the Ottoman forces that crossed to the opposite shore, Mahmud Pasha, thinking that this was a trick, told Murad Pasha to stay in place. When Mahmud Pasha retreated against the enemy's superior forces, he could not find Murad Pasha where he left him. Because he had gone forward recklessly, deceived by the enemy's fake draw. The enemy was ambushed in several places.Their aim was to turn Murat Pasha's back, but on the other hand, Aq Qoyunlu made a fake retreat against Murat Pasha's forces. Murad Pasha could not understand the meaning of this and started to attack. Meanwhile, Uzun Hasan's forces, which surrounded him from behind, suddenly appeared and the retreating forces turned back. Murad Pasha now understood the situation. However, he had no choice but to fight. Murad Pasha's army had reached 3 hours in the face of superior forces. This victory was an important event for the Aq Qoyunlu. Because it caused a terrible demoralization on the Ottomans.[17]
After this incident, Uzun Hasan and his forces disappeared again. That's why Mehmed headed towards Bayburt and although he traveled for 6 days, he did not receive any news from Uzun Hasan. However, on the seventh day, Wednesday, August 11, 1473, they came to a place called Three Mouths around Tercan. This place was narrow and difficult to pass. Even the animals were no longer able to walk. Therefore, they had to camp and rest in this place, which was difficult to pass, narrow and surrounded by high mountains. Here, while the army was still out of order, some forces appeared on the hill called Otlukbeli at noon. These were the soldiers given to Uzun Hasan's command of Gavur İshak. Faced with this situation, the Ottomans immediately took action to establish war order. The task of countering Gavur İshak was given to Davud Pasha. Mahmud Pasha was also with these forces. Meanwhile, Uzun Hasan's forces held the Otlukbeli ridge and forced the Ottomans to accept the war there. Davud Pasha attacked Gavur İshak's forces with the Anatolian soldiers, preventing them from coming down the hill and connecting the roads. In the face of this attack, Gavur İshak retreated to join the main forces. Now Davud Pasha went to the plains with the Anatolian soldiers and took battle order. Opposite Davud Pasha were the forces of Zeynel Mirza, who commanded the right wing of Uzun Hasan's army. When they attacked Davud Pasha, a bloody war suddenly broke out on this plain. At this time, Mehmed and his Princes climbed the hill to reach the battlefield. Prince Mustafa managed to get to the plain a little later and fell on Zeynel's forces with all the Anatolian soldiers. Now a terrible war was taking place. When the Ottoman soldiers saw the Akkoyunlu soldiers coming down from the mountains like a flood, they had no difficulty in understanding what they were up against. On the right and left wings, 60,000 people began to harass Uzun Hasan's forces with all their efforts. The surroundings were not visible due to the dust rising from the ground. So many people and horses were dying that their blood flowed like a flood from the hills to the stream. Zeynel fell among the Ottoman soldiers and was killed. His severed head was sent to Prince Mustafa by Mahmud Agha, and Mustafa sent it to the Sultan. Thus, the right wing of Uzun Hasan's forces collapsed. The Ottoman forces advancing on Zeynel now attacked in the direction of Uzun Hasan. Uzun Hasan's other son, Uğurlu Mehmed, left the battlefield almost without fighting. Because when Prince Bayezid marched on Uğurlu Mehmed, Uğurlu Mehmed withdrew avoiding facing the Ottoman forces and Prince Bayezid started to fight with Mehmed Bakır's forces. Uğurlu Mehmed would prevent those who fled if the Ottoman army was defeated and returned, and if his father's forces were defeated, he would hit the Ottoman army from behind. But he could not fulfill his duty when he was confronted by the forces of Prince Bayezid. But he started to defend a stream between himself and the Ottomans. Uzun Hasan saw his son Zeynel die and his right wing collapse. He turned to Pir Ahmed, who was next to him, and shouted, "May the Karamanoğlu dynasty be ruined, what did I do with the Ottoman?" Seeing that the war was won, Sultan Mehmed mobilized the 25,000 janissaries he had with him. Seeing these on the battlefield, Uzun Hasan's hope was completely crushed. Uzun Hasan realized that it was unnecessary to resist and left the battlefield. In order to escape, Uzun Hasan had to resort to trickery and leave someone very similar to him, Pir Mehmed Bey, in his place. In this way, he provided himself with the opportunity to escape. Soon Pir Mehmed Bey was captured and Uzun Hasan's standard was brought to the presence of the sultan. The war became one-sided when Uğurlu Mehmed could not resist and started to run away. Aq Qoyunlu were running away and the Ottomans were killing them. If the Ottomans had not gone into plunder, almost none of the Aq Qoyunlu forces would have survived.[18]
The number of people killed on the battlefield was 50,000 people. The number of prisoners taken was also high. They were chained and brought before the Sultan.
Sultan Mehmed took many captives, but released the leaders of the Qara Qoyunlu, who had joined the war by force, and the descendants of Timur and he released the descendants of his son Miran Shah.[19]
Aftermath
Following the defeat of Uzun Hasan, Mehmed took over Şebinkarahisar and consolidated his rule over the area. From Şebinkarahisar he sent a series of letters announcing his victory, including an unusual missive in the Uyghur language addressed to the Turkomans of Anatolia.[20]
The decree (yarlık) had 201 lines and was written by Şeyhzade Abdurrezak Bahşı on 30 August 1473:[21]
Completed when Karahisar was reached on the date of eight hundred and seventy eight, 5th day of the month Rebiülahir, the year of the Snake.
Ibn Kemal made the following statement on the capture of Şebinkarahisar:[22]
On Wednesday 24 August we, the Ottomans, marched to Şebinkarahisar. When we set up cannon and began to destroy the fortifications ... (the governor) Dara Bey came out, seeking peaceful surrender ... We did not remove the existing townspeople ..., but we left there one-thousand of our men with abundant supplies.
When the Karahisar area became the accommodation place of countless armies, Darab Beg-i Purnak, the owner of that castle, took shelter in the castle. Rum (Ottoman) soldiers surrounded the castle. Darab Beg surrendered the castle out of fear of the Rums.
Ottomans nearly destroyed the power of the Aq Qoyunlu in the East. Aq Qoyunlu would later be destroyed completely by Ismail I, founder of the Safavid Empire. This victory would create a new enemy for the Ottoman Empire in the East. The race between the two empires ended with the fall of the Safavid dynasty from power in the 18th century.
Mehmed II, commonly known as Mehmed the Conqueror, was twice the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from August 1444 to September 1446 and then later from February 1451 to May 1481.
Mehmed III was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1595 until his death in 1603. Mehmed was known for ordering the execution of his brothers and leading the army in the Long Turkish War, during which the Ottoman army was victorious at the decisive Battle of Keresztes. This victory was however undermined by some military losses such as in Győr and Nikopol. He also ordered the successful quelling of the Jelali rebellions. The sultan also communicated with the court of Elizabeth I on the grounds of stronger commercial relations and in the hopes of England to ally with the Ottomans against the Spanish.
The siege of Negroponte was fought between the forces of the Ottoman Empire, led by Sultan Mehmed II in person, and the garrison of the Venetian colony of Negroponte (Chalcis), the capital of the Venetian possession of Euboea in Central Greece. The Ottoman sultan Mehmed II laid siege to the fortress at Negroponte. It lasted for almost a month, and despite great Ottoman casualties ended in the capture of the city and the island of Euboea by the Ottomans.
The Aq Qoyunlu or the White Sheep Turkomans was a culturally Persianate, Sunni Turkoman tribal confederation. Founded in the Diyarbakir region by Qara Yuluk Uthman Beg, they ruled parts of present-day eastern Turkey from 1378 to 1503, and in their last decades also ruled Armenia, Azerbaijan, much of Iran, Iraq, and Oman where the ruler of Hormuz recognised Aq Qoyunlu suzerainty. The Aq Qoyunlu empire reached its zenith under Uzun Hasan.
Karamani Mehmet Pasha was an Ottoman statesman who served as Grand Vizier from 1477 to 1481.
Sara Khatun was an influential woman of the Aq Qoyunlu state, as the political adviser of her son, Uzun Hasan. She was a successful and well-respected diplomatic mediator.
This is a list of campaigns personally led by Mehmed II was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire twice, first for a short time from 1444 to September 1446, and later from February 1451 to 1481. At the age of 21, he conquered Constantinople and brought an end to the Byzantine Empire, transforming the Ottoman state into an empire. Mehmed continued his conquests in Asia, with the Anatolian reunification, and in Europe, as far as Bosnia and Croatia. Mehmed II is regarded as a national hero in Turkey, and Istanbul's Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge is named after him.
The siege of Trebizond was the successful siege of the city of Trebizond, capital of the Empire of Trebizond, by the Ottomans under Sultan Mehmed II, which ended on 15 August 1461. The siege culminated a lengthy campaign on the Ottoman side, which involved coordinated but independent manoeuvres by a large army and navy. The Trapezuntine defenders had relied on a network of alliances, which would provide them with support and a workforce when the Ottomans began their siege. Still, it failed when Emperor David Megas Komnenos most needed it.
Battle of Otlukbeli Martyrs' Monument is a war memorial in Otlukbeli district of Erzincan Province, eastern Turkey. Opened in 2008, it is dedicated to the fallen soldiers in the Battle of Otlukbeli (1473), with both belligerents, Ottoman Empire and Aq Qoyunlu, being Muslim Turk states.
Ala al-Dawla Bozkurt Beg was the ruler of Dulkadir from late 1480 until his death. Championed by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II, Bozkurt ousted his brother Shah Budak and claimed the throne. Early into his reign, Bozkurt assisted Mehmed's successor Bayezid II in pursuing his claimant brother Cem Sultan, who was harbored by the Mamluk Sultanate. In response, Bozkurt besieged Malatya, which prompted the Mamluks to initiate an offensive against him and the Ottomans. During the conflict, Bozkurt steered away from sending his support to the Ottomans, which contributed to their defeat by the Mamluks.
Sayf al-Din Malik Arslan was Beg (ruler) of Dulkadir from 28 August 1454 until his death. Malik Arslan was one of the numerous sons of his predecessor Suleiman Beg. He first competed with his uncle Feyyaz for the throne and was favored by the Mamluk Sultan Sayf al-Din Inal. Later into his reign, Malik Arslan was involved in the succession wars within the Karamanids. He ransacked the region wishing to retake Kayseri but was defeated by the Aq Qoyunlu ruler Uzun Hasan. In September 1465, Malik Arslan ceded Harpoot to Uzun Hasan, who had taken advantage of the worsening relations between Malik Arslan and the Mamluks. Malik Arslan was assassinated on the orders of Khushqadam, incited by Malik Arslan's rival brother Shah Budak, who replaced him.
Ughurlu Muhammad Beg or Ughurlu Mehmed was a prince of the Aq Qoyunlu, son of Uzun Hasan and his Kurdish spouse.
The siege of Smederevo was Mehmed II's assault on the Smederevo Fortress during his fourth Serbian campaign.
Battle of Zvornik or siege of Zvornik took place during the second Bosnian campaign of Mehmed the Conqueror in 1464.
The Battle of Kljuc is a pitched battle which took place during the conquest of Bosnia in 1463.
The siege of Sebinkarahisar, is a siege that Mehmed II made upon his return from the Otlukbeli Campaign against Aq Qoyunlu's forces.
Battle of Kıreli is a battle fought between the Ottoman Empire and Aq Qoyuniu with the Karamanids.
The Battle of Tahtalu/Užice was a land battle that took place between the forces of the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary in 1458.
The Aegean Expedition of 1456 was the expedition in which the Ottoman army under the command of Mehmed the Conqueror captured Enez, Lemnos and the island of Samothrace.
Hüseyin Pasha was a leader of Celali rebellions and a former Beylerbey of Abyssinia in Ottoman Empire in 16th century.
References
↑ Somel, Selçuk Akşin, Historical dictionary of the Ottoman Empire, (Scarecrow Press Inc., 2003), xc.
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