{{flagicon image|Flag of the Ottoman Empire (1844–1922).svg}}[[Adolphus Slade]]"},"strength1":{"wt":"6 [[ships of the line]],
2 [[frigate]]s,
3 [[steam ship|steamers]]{{sfn|Tucker|2009|p=1209}}"},"strength2":{"wt":"7 frigates,
3 [[corvette]]s,
2 steamers{{sfn|Tucker|2009|p=1209}}"},"casualties1":{"wt":"37 killed,
229 wounded{{sfn|Anderson|1952|p=580}}"},"casualties2":{"wt":"3,000 killed{{sfn|Anderson|1952|p=580}}
1 frigate sunk,
1 steamer sunk,
6 frigates grounded,
3 corvettes grounded,
~2 shore [[artillery battery|batteries]] destroyed{{sfn|Arsenyev|Petrushevsky|1900}}"}},"i":0}}]}" id="mwBw">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}
Battle of Sinop | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Part of the Crimean War | |||||||
The Battle of Sinop by Alexey Bogolyubov | |||||||
| |||||||
Belligerents | |||||||
Russian Empire | |||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Pavel Nakhimov | Osman Pasha (POW) Adolphus Slade | ||||||
Strength | |||||||
6 ships of the line, 2 frigates, 3 steamers [2] | 7 frigates, 3 corvettes, 2 steamers [2] | ||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||
37 killed, 229 wounded [3] | 3,000 killed [3] 1 frigate sunk, 1 steamer sunk, 6 frigates grounded, 3 corvettes grounded, ~2 shore batteries destroyed [4] | ||||||
The Battle of Sinop, or the Battle of Sinope, was a naval battle that took place on 30 November 1853 between Imperial Russia and the Ottoman Empire during the opening phase of the Crimean War (1853–1856). [5] It took place at Sinop, a sea port on the southern shore of the Black Sea (the northern shore of Anatolian Turkey). [5] A Russian squadron attacked and decisively defeated an Ottoman squadron anchored in Sinop's harbor. The Russian force consisted of six ships of the line, two frigates and three armed steamers, led by Admiral Pavel Nakhimov; the Ottoman defenders were seven frigates, three corvettes and two armed steamers, commanded by Vice Admiral Osman Pasha. [1] [5]
The Russian navy had recently adopted naval artillery that fired explosive shells, which gave them a decisive advantage in the battle. All the Ottoman frigates and corvettes were either sunk or forced to run aground to avoid destruction; only one steamer escaped. The Russians lost no ships. Nearly 3,000 Turks were killed when Nakhimov's forces fired on the town after the battle. [6] The victory is commemorated in Russia as one of the Days of Military Honour.
The one-sided battle contributed to the decision of France and Britain to enter the war, on the side of the Ottomans. The battle demonstrated the effectiveness of explosive shells against wooden hulls, and the superiority of shells over cannonballs. [7] It led to widespread adoption of explosive naval artillery and indirectly to the development of ironclad warships.
On 4 October 1853, around 2 months before the battle, in response to the Russian occupation of Moldavia and Wallachia (then part of the Ottoman Danube), the Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia. [5] By the early 1850s the Ottoman Empire was deeply in debt and relied exclusively on British and French loans as a means of support. As a result, Ottoman leaders had no choice but to agree to drastic reductions in both army and navy force levels. Tsar Nicholas I saw the reductions as an opportunity to press Russian claims in the Trans-Caucasus and along the Danube River. [8] In July 1853 Russian forces occupied several Ottoman principalities and forts along the Danube. Mediation of the disputes broke down, and Ottoman Sultan Abdulmecid I responded with a declaration of war. Fearing Russian expansion, the United Kingdom and France issued a concurrent ultimatum: Russia was to fight only defensively. As long as Russia stayed on the defensive the Anglo-French would remain neutral, but if Russia acted "aggressively" the western powers reserved the right to get involved. [9]
Hostilities began officially on 4 October, with a principal theater in Europe and another in the Caucasus. Sultan Abdulmecid ordered an immediate offensive to drive back the Russians and demonstrate Ottoman might before Ottoman finances totally collapsed. [10] The offensive along the Danube met with mixed success, but the Ottoman land attack into the Russian Caucasus was relatively successful. By the end of October, the Russian Caucasus Corps was in danger of being surrounded. [11] Turkish ships trafficking gunpowder to the Circassians were in contravention of the Straits Convention, which international law was sworn to uphold. The Russians told the Austrian Consul that they were legitimately entitled to seek redress for this act of piracy. Furthermore Russia claimed that two Customs House men had been murdered at Tiflis. The tsar needed no further incentive to react.
Despite the Ottoman declaration of war, the naval aspect was mostly uneventful until November, when the Vice Admiral Osman Pasha was forced to dock at Sinop during a storm on the Black Sea. To support the attack and properly supply his forces before significant snowfall, Sultan Abdulmecid ordered a squadron of frigates, steamers and transports to establish a supply corridor to the Ottoman army in Georgia. Osman Pasha, himself aboard the 60-gun Avni Illah, had been sailing with seven frigates, two corvettes and several transports to resupply the Turkish land forces. [12]
Unable to interdict the convoy, Russian naval elements remained in Sevastopol. Abdulmecid ordered a second convoy commanded by Osman Pasha, but by this time it was late November and the fleet was forced to seek winter quarters. It ended up at Sinop, joining the frigate Kaid Zafer which had been part of an earlier patrol, and was joined by the steam frigate Taif from a smaller squadron. The Ottomans had wanted to send ships of the line to Sinop, but the British ambassador in Constantinople, Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe, had objected to this plan, and only frigates were sent. [13]
Initial Ottoman activity in the Black Sea had been allowed to proceed unhindered, but as the situation of the Russian Caucasus Corps deteriorated, St. Petersburg was forced to act. Adm. Pavel Nakhimov was ordered to muster the Russian navy and interdict the Ottomans. From 1–23 November Russian squadrons were dispatched into the Black Sea to establish control. Two Ottoman steamers, the Medzhir Tadzhiret and the Pervaz Bahri, were captured by the Russians in short engagements. Russia was able to establish operational control of the sea lanes but storms forced Nakhimov to send back most of his force for repair. Left with only a frigate, a steamer and three ships of the line, Nakhimov continued the search for Osman and the convoy. On 23 November, Osman's flag was sighted returning and then entering the harbor at Sinop. Nakhimov immediately deployed his ships to blockade the harbor and sent his only frigate to retrieve as many reinforcements as could be found. [14]
On 30 November, Vice Admiral Fyodor Novosilski rallied six more ships to Nakhimov, completing the blockade force in a loose semi-circle. Additional steamers were expected, but Nakhimov decided to act before the Ottomans could be reinforced by additional ships. For his part, Osman had been well aware of the Russian presence since 23 November, but felt his ships were safe in harbor. Sinop had substantial harbor defenses and forts with interlocking fields of fire and ample cannon. [14] Osman did little to break the weak Russian blockade, even allowing many of his crews to disembark. [14]
Three Russian second-rate ships of the line (84 cannons each) led by Admiral Nakhimov arrived at Sinop on 23 November to discover the Turkish fleet in the harbor under the defence of the on-shore fortifications strengthened by cannons. Six Russian warships from Sevastopol under command of Vice Admiral Fyodor Novosilsky (including three 120-cannon first-rate ships of the line) joined Nakhimov on 28 November. [15]
Admiral Nakhimov, was under orders from Alexander Sergeyevich Menshikov to destroy any Turkish ships carrying supplies to the Caucasus. His squadron included six modern battleships, two frigates, and three streamers, with the heavier guns armed with explosive shells, their first use in a sea battle. [16]
The Ottoman forces included seven frigates, three corvettes and two armed steamers. The Russians planned to deploy their ships in two columns that would advance to within close range of the enemy vessels before dropping anchor and opening fire. Under Nakhimov's command, the 84-gun ship Imperatritsa Maria was the first to engage when she fired on the 44-gun Ottoman flagship Auni Allah. [17]
On 30 November the Russian squadron entered the harbor from the northwest in a triangular formation. Nakhimov maneuvered his fleet so that the Ottoman vessels were between the Russian ships and Sinop's harbor defenses, shielding his own force and exposing the Ottomans to potential friendly fire. Nakhimov spaced his battleships evenly in two lines, covering the entire harbor with interlocking fields of fire. Russian gunners began to score hits on all the Ottoman targets. The projectile shells fired for the first time from Russian guns immediately set the wooden Ottoman ships on fire. Panic-stricken sailors found firefighting efforts difficult amidst continued fire and almost constant shrapnel.[ citation needed ] After about 30 minutes of combat the Ottoman flag frigate Auni Allah was shot full of holes and ran aground when her anchor cable was cut. Imperatritsa Maria then attacked and disabled the 44-gun frigate Fazli Allah, which caught fire. Meanwhile, the other Russian ships damaged the Nizamie and Damiad. The Ottoman corvette Guli Sephid and frigate Navek Bakhri exploded. [17]
Only one Ottoman vessel, the 12-gun paddle frigate Taif, managed to escape the battle while all the others were either sunk or purposely run ashore to prevent sinking. She fled to Istanbul and arrived on 2 December, informing the Ottoman government and Admiral Stratford of the Royal Navy of the defeat at Sinop. Once the enemy fleet was destroyed the Russians engaged Ottoman shore batteries and destroyed them. During the fighting 37 Russians were killed and 229 were wounded, at least three of the ships of the line were damaged.
Ottoman casualties included 2700 sailors killed of the 4200 present, while Sinope endured six days of bombardment. [16]
When telegraph reports of the battle reached Russian authorities in St. Petersburg, the reaction was jubilant. The untested and widely hated Russian navy had proven victorious and the recent expenditure in its development seemed warranted. Several balls were held to celebrate the victory and a state-funded parade was held. The affair was rather grand, and included dancers, bands, parading troops who had not taken part in the battle and criminals dressed up in Ottoman uniforms. Military advisors saw the battle as a turning point and pushed for shell-firing guns to be installed on all Russian ships. [18]
The reaction in the Ottoman capital of Constantinople ranged from concern to total panic. Russia had annihilated a vital convoy and now had operational control over the Black Sea. The destruction of the harbor defenses opened the door to Russian invasion and suddenly the entire Samsun and Trabzon Coast was now at risk. Moreover, the Russian violation of the British/French mandate for the war meant that the actions of Russia could no longer be predicted and Russia might not be fighting with one hand tied behind its back. [18]
According to Orlando Figes, the defeat led to diplomatic efforts by the Sublime Porte, with Mustafa Reşid Pasha making, "one last effort to involve the Western powers in a settlement was needed if they were to be won over to the Turkish side in the event of a general war." On 22 December, the French and British agreed a combined Black Sea fleet would ensure protection of Turkish shipping. [16] : 143, 147
"She [Turkey] hears from all sides that the occupation of the Principalities by Russia constitutes a cause of war; and she has not only put herself into a state of respectable defence, but she has appealed with perfect success to the zeal of her Mussulmen and to the loyalty of her Christian subjects." [19]
The attack was treated by external powers as unjustified and caused a wave of anti-Russian sentiment in western Europe. [20] Much of the British press presented the attack as the "Massacre of Sinope". [20] The attack strengthened the pro-war factions in Britain and France, and provided them with the justification for a war to curb Russian bellicosity. Lord Palmerston temporarily resigned over the affair. [21] By March 1854, however, war hawks in the National Government won out and Sinop was seen as a just cause for war, although ultimately the real motivation was to curb Russian expansion in accordance with a balance of power strategy. [20] "Turkey must be defended from aggression.... It may be regarded as an intentional insult to the maritime powers...these ships were charged with provisions for Batoum and they have been destroyed in a Turkish harbour - which is Turkish territory - which England is bound to protect." [22]
Sinop was presented by the media as not so much a battle but an ambush, but its results were nonetheless important to the practice of 19th-century warfare and the evolution of naval doctrine. Prior to Sinop the standard naval armament was the smooth-bore that fired cannonballs, shot, shrapnel, and other projectiles. Paixhans guns or regional equivalents were slowly being integrated into navies, but only the French, Russian and American navies had made a comprehensive effort. These batteries represented a clear evolution in naval technology that broke through the final ceiling of the Age of Sail. [23] Unlike previous smooth-bore ordnance, Paixhans guns fired explosive shells and not mere metal projectiles. The shells themselves did both kinetic and explosive damage, causing fires. In addition, the new guns were heavier, could engage at a greater range, and possessed far greater penetrating power. [23]
However, until 1853 no navy had made comprehensive use of shell-firing guns in a live combat environment. Indeed, many experts disparaged the new weapons and the larger ships required to carry them as too heavy for naval warfare. The results of Sinop were clear and showed that the new weapons were effective. As a result, an arms race ensued with participant nations desperately looking for ways to up-gun existing ships and incorporate the shell-firing guns into new ironclad vessels. [23]
Pavel Stepanovich Nakhimov was a Russian admiral in the Imperial Russian Navy known for his victory in the Battle of Sinop and his leadership in the Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855) during the Crimean War.
Admiral Nakhimov is a 1947 Soviet biopic film directed by Vsevolod Pudovkin, based on the life of Russian Admiral Pavel Nakhimov (1802-1855). In 1946 Pudovkin, Golovnya, Lukovsky, Kryukov, Dikiy, Simonov, and Knyazev received the Stalin Prize.
Vice Admiral Vladimir Alexeyevich Kornilov was a Russian naval officer who took part in the Crimean War and is known for his battle against the Pervaz-ı Bahrî in what is considered the first battle between steam ships.
Patrona Osman Pasha was an Ottoman naval officer who led Ottoman forces in the Battle of Sinop and became a prisoner of war until being released in 1855.
Feyzâ-i Bahrî was one of four wooden-hulled Mecidiye-class paddle frigates built for the Ottoman Navy in the 1840s; they were the first Ottoman-built warships powered by steam. She served with the fleet until 1867, including during the Crimean War, where she saw a minor battle with a Russian frigate in the Black Sea. Feyzâ-i Bahrî ferried soldiers to Crete during the Cretan Revolt in 1866 and was converted into a dedicated transport vessel the following year. She served in that capacity until 1878 when she was decommissioned, being broken up in 1880.
Mecidiye was the lead ship of four wooden-hulled Mecidiye-class paddle frigates built for the Ottoman Navy in the 1840s; they were the first Ottoman-built warships powered by steam. She was modified during construction to be used as a yacht by the sultan of the Ottoman Empire. During the Crimean War, she took part in a minor, inconclusive battle with a Russian frigate but otherwise saw no further action. She saw limited service for the remainder of her career, including during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. She ended her career as a coal storage hulk and was broken up in 1903.
Taif was one of four wooden-hulled Mecidiye-class paddle frigates built for the Ottoman Navy in the 1840s; they were the first Ottoman-built warships powered by steam. She served with the fleet until 1867, including during the Crimean War, where she saw a minor battle with a Russian frigate in the Black Sea. She was present at the Battle of Sinop, but her steam engine allowed her to escape before the Russian fleet destroyed the Ottoman squadron in the port. The ship remained in service until 1867, seeing little activity during this period, and was ultimately broken up in 1868.
Saik-i Şadi was one of four wooden-hulled Mecidiye-class paddle frigates built for the Ottoman Navy in the 1840s; they were the first Ottoman-built warships powered by steam. The ship had a relatively uneventful career; she saw limited action during the Crimean War in 1853, when she fought a small action against a Russian frigate in the Black Sea. The future Sultan, Abdülaziz, frequently used the ship as his yacht in the 1850s, but she otherwise saw little active use before being decommissioned in 1867 and broken up in 1869.
Rostislav was an 84-gun third-rate ship of the line built for the Black Sea Fleet of the Imperial Russian Navy in the 1840s as part of a naval expansion program to strengthen the fleet during a period of increased tension with Britain and France. Rostislav carried a battery primarily consisting of traditional shot-firing guns, but she also carried eight new shell-firing guns. The ship saw combat during the Crimean War at the Battle of Sinop in 1853, where the Russian shell guns proved to be decisive. She repaired in Sevastopol in 1854 and was scuttled during the Siege of Sevastopol in 1855.
Imperatritsa Maria was an 84-gun third rate ship of the line built for the Black Sea Fleet of the Imperial Russian Navy in the late 1840s and early 1850s as part of a naval expansion program to strengthen the fleet during a period of increased tension with Britain and France. The second and final member of the Khrabryi class, she was the last sail-powered ship of the line to be built for the Russian Navy.
Chesma was an 84-gun ship of the line built for the Black Sea Fleet of the Imperial Russian Navy in the 1840s. Chesma carried a battery primarily consisting of tradition shot-firing guns, but she also carried four new shell-firing guns. The ship saw combat during the Crimean War at the Battle of Sinop against an Ottoman squadron in 1853, where the Russian shell guns proved to be decisive. The battle prompted Britain and France to intervene to support the Ottomans, leading the Russian fleet to withdraw to Sevastopol to avoid a battle with an Anglo-French fleet. Chesma helped to defend Sevastopol, supporting Russian ground forces during a battle in February 1855 before being disarmed to strengthen the city's defenses and then scuttled to block the harbor entrance to the Anglo-French fleet in August.
Khrabryi was the lead ship of the Khrabryi class of ships of the line built for the Black Sea Fleet of the Imperial Russian Navy in the 1840s. She saw limited service during the Crimean War in 1853–1854; storm damage prevented her from participating in the Battle of Sinop, and the Russian fleet thereafter avoided battle with the British and French fleets that intervened on behalf of the Ottoman Empire. Disarmed during the Siege of Sevastopol, she was later scuttled there to block the harbor entrance in 1855.
The Khrabryi class was a pair of ships of the line built for the Black Sea Fleet of the Imperial Russian Navy in the 1840s and early 1850s. The class comprised two ships: Khrabryi and Imperatritsa Maria. The two ships were built as part of a naval expansion program aimed at strengthening the Black Sea Fleet during a period of increased tension with Britain and France over the continued decline of the Ottoman Empire. Both ships saw active service during the Crimean War, with Imperatritsa Maria serving as Pavel Nakhimov's flagship at the Battle of Sinop in November 1853, where the Russians annihilated an Ottoman squadron. The two ships were withdrawn to Sevastopol after the British and French intervention and were trapped there during the Siege of Sevastopol until 1855, when both were scuttled to block the harbor entrance.
Sviatoslav was a Sultan Makhmud-class ship of the line built for the Imperial Russian Navy's Black Sea Fleet in the 1840s. The ship participated in the Crimean War in 1853–1855, beginning with an operation to carry reinforcements for the Imperial Russian Army stationed in the Caucasus in October 1853. Storm damage prevented her from taking part in the Battle of Sinop the next month, but the British and French intervention in the war after that battle led ultimately to Sviatoslav's loss. The Russian fleet withdrew to Sevastopol to avoid battle with the Anglo-French fleet, and during the ensuing Siege of Sevastopol, she was converted into a hospital ship and eventually scuttled in February 1855.
Iagudiil was a Sultan Makhmud-class ship of the line built for the Imperial Russian Navy's Black Sea Fleet in the 1840s. Iagudiil had an uneventful career in the 1840s, alternating between periods in commission and in reserve. She participated in the early operations of the Black Sea Fleet during the Crimean War in October 1853, but her poor condition kept her from seeing action at the Battle of Sinop. The French and British intervention after Sinop led to the Russian retreat to Sevastopol, which was then besieged from 1854 to 1855. During the siege, Iagudiil battled French and British field artillery. After the Russian defenders were defeated in August 1855, they burned the ship to prevent it from being captured by the British and French, and the wreck was later demolished in 1857.
Varna was a Sultan Makhmud-class ship of the line built for the Imperial Russian Navy's Black Sea Fleet in the late 1830s and early 1840s. The ship had an uneventful career, apart from routine peacetime operations in the 1840s, interrupted by periods in reserve. In October 1853, she helped carry soldiers to the Caucasus to strengthen the Russian position there at the start of the Crimean War. In need of repairs, she was unable to take part in the Battle of Sinop in November, and thereafter remained in Sevastopol during the siege of the city. Her crew was sent ashore to reinforce the defenses and Varna was scuttled as a blockship in 1854 to bar the harbor entrance to French and British warships.
Uriil was a Sultan Makhmud-class ship of the line built for the Imperial Russian Navy's Black Sea Fleet in the late 1830s and early 1840s. The ship had a relatively uneventful career, operating with the Black Sea Fleet in the early 1840s before being laid up in 1845; apart from brief periods of activity in 1847 and 1849, she remained out of service until 1852. After the outbreak of the Crimean War in October 1853, she joined a squadron commanded by Pavel Nakhimov, but was unable to participate in the Battle of Sinop after a storm opened leaks in her hull. In poor condition, she was removed from service and her crew was sent to help man shore batteries during the Siege of Sevastopol. Uriil was then scuttled to block the harbor entrance in 1854.
Selafail was a Sultan Makhmud-class ship of the line built for the Imperial Russian Navy's Black Sea Fleet in the late 1830s and early 1840s. The ship had a relatively uneventful career, operating with the Black Sea Fleet in the early 1840s before being laid up in 1845; apart from brief periods of activity in 1847 and 1849, she remained out of service until 1852. After the outbreak of the Crimean War in October 1853, she was slated to join a squadron commanded by Pavel Nakhimov, but storm damage prevented her from taking part in the Battle of Sinop. The ship was eventually scuttled as a blockship in 1854 during the Siege of Sevastopol.
The Mecidiye class of paddle frigates consisted of four ships of the Ottoman Navy built in the 1840s. The class comprised Mecidiye, Taif, Saik-i Şadi, and Feyzâ-i Bahrî.
The Egypt Eyalet began a military intervention in Crimea at the request of the Ottoman Sultan Abdulmejid I after the Russian armies crossed the Prut River in 1853, they occupied the states of Wallachia and Moldavia, and peaceful efforts failed to resolve the deteriorating situation.
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