Bulbul

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Bulbul
Brown-eared Bulbul 1.jpg
Brown-eared bulbul (Hypsipetes amaurotis)
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Infraorder: Passerides
Parvorder: Sylviida
Family: Pycnonotidae
Gray, GR, 1840
Genera

See text

Synonyms

The bulbuls are members of a family, Pycnonotidae, of medium-sized passerine songbirds, which also includes greenbuls, brownbuls, leafloves, and bristlebills. The family is distributed across most of Africa and into the Middle East, tropical Asia to Indonesia, and north as far as Japan. A few insular species occur on the tropical islands of the Indian Ocean. There are 166 species in 32 genera. While different species are found in a wide range of habitats, the African species are predominantly found in rainforest, whereas Asian bulbuls are predominantly found in more open areas.

Contents

Taxonomy

The family Pycnonotidae was introduced by the English zoologist George Robert Gray in 1840 as a subfamily Pycnonotinae of the thrush family Turdidae. [1] [2]

The Arabic word bulbul (بلبل) is sometimes used to refer to the "nightingale" as well as the bulbul, but the English word bulbul refers to the birds discussed in this article. [3]

A few species that were previously considered to be members of the Pycnonotidae have been moved to other families. Several Malagasy species that were formerly placed in the genus Phyllastrephus are now placed in the family Bernieridae. [4] [5] In addition, the genus Nicator containing three African species is now placed in a separate family Nicatoridae. [6] [7]

A study published in 2007 by Ulf Johansson and colleagues using three nuclear markers found that the genus Andropadus was non-monophyletic. In the subsequent revision, species were moved to three resurrected genera: Arizelocichla , Stelgidillas and Eurillas . Only the sombre greenbul (Andropadus importunus), was retained in Andropadus. [8] [9] A study by Subir Shakya and Frederick Shelden published in 2017 found that species in the large genus  Pycnonotus formed several deeply divergent clades. The genus was split and six genera were resurrected to accommodate these clades. [8] [10]

The family forms two main clades. One clade contains species that are only found in Africa; many of these have greenbul in the common name. The second clade contains mostly Asian species but includes a few species that are found in Africa. [10]

Pycnonotidae – bulbuls (166 species)

Paradoxornithidae – parrotbills and myzornis (37 species)

Sylviidae – sylviid babblers (32 species)

Zosteropidae – white-eyes (150 species)

Timaliidae – tree babblers (58 species)

Pellorneidae – ground babblers (65 species)

Alcippeidae – Alcippe fulvettas (10 species)

Leiothrichidae – laughingthrushes and allies (133 species)

Phylogeny based on a study of the babblers by Cai and colleagues published in 2019. [8] [11]

List of genera

Collared finchbill Spizixos semitorques.jpg
Collared finchbill
Red-whiskered bulbul Red-whiskered Bulbul-web.jpg
Red-whiskered bulbul

Currently, there are 167 recognized species in 32 genera: [8]

Cladogram

Africa clade

Andropadus – sombre greenbul

Calyptocichla – golden greenbul

Stelgidillas – slender-billed greenbul

Neolestes – black-collared bulbul

Phyllastrephus – greenbuls, brownbuls, leaflove (20 species)

Criniger – greenbuls (5 species)

Eurillas – greenbuls (5 species)

Bleda – bristlebills (5 species)

Arizelocichla – greenbuls (12 species)

Atimastillas – yellow-throated leaflove

Ixonotus – spotted greenbul

Thescelocichla – swamp palm bulbul

Arizelocichla montana – Cameroon greenbul

Chlorocichla – greenbuls (5 species)

Baeopogon – greenbuls (2 species)

Chlorocichla simplex – simple greenbul

mainly Asian clade

Brachypodius – (4 species)

Poliolophus – yellow-wattled bulbul

Euptilotus – puff-backed bulbul

Microtarsus – black-and-white bulbul

Ixodia – (3 species)

Rubigula – (5 species)

Pycnonotus – (34 species)

Nok – bare-faced bulbul

Spizixos – finchbills (2 species)

Tricholestes – hairy-backed bulbul

Alophoixus – (8 species)

Setornis – hook-billed bulbul

Alcurus – striated bulbul

Iole – (7 species)

Acritillas – yellow-browed bulbul

Hemixos – (4 species)

Hypsipetes – (25 species)

Ixos – (5 species)

Phylogeny based on a study by Subir Shakya and Frederick Shelden published in 2017 with the revised genera as defined in the list maintained on behalf of the International Ornithological Committee. [8] [10] The positions of the bare-faced bulbul (Nok hualon) and the yellow-browed bulbul (Acritillas indica) are based on a study by Jérôme Fuchs and colleagues published in 2018. [12] As currently defined the genera Chlorocichla and Arizelocichla are not monophyletic.

Description

Bulbuls are short-necked slender passerines. The tails are long and the wings short and rounded. In almost all species the bill is slightly elongated and slightly hooked at the end. They vary in length from 13 cm and 13.3 g (0.47 oz) for the tiny greenbul to 29 cm and 93 g (3.3 oz) in the straw-headed bulbul. [13] Overall the sexes are alike, although the females tend to be slightly smaller. In a few species the differences are so great that they have been described as functionally different species. The soft plumage of some species is colorful with yellow, red or orange vents, cheeks, throat or supercilia, but most are drab, with uniform olive-brown to black plumage. Species with dull coloured eyes often sport contrasting eyerings. Some have very distinct crests. Bulbuls are highly vocal, with the calls of most species being described as nasal or gravelly. One author described the song of the brown-eared bulbul as "one of the most unattractive noises made by any bird". [14]

Behaviour and ecology

Breeding

The bulbuls are generally monogamous. One unusual exception is the yellow-whiskered greenbul which at least over part of its range appears to be polygamous and engage in a lekking system. Some species also have alloparenting arrangements, where non-breeders, usually the young from earlier clutches, help raise the young of a dominant breeding pair. [15] Up to five speckled eggs are laid in open tree nests and incubated by the female. Incubation usually lasts between 11 and 14 days, and chicks fledge after 12–16 days. [16]

Feeding

Bulbuls eat a wide range of foods, ranging from fruit to seeds, nectar, small insects and other arthropods and even small vertebrates. The majority of species are frugivorous and supplement their diet with some insects, although there is a significant minority of specialists, particularly in Africa. Open country species in particular are generalists. Bulbuls in the genus Criniger and bristlebills in the genus Bleda will join mixed-species feeding flocks.

Relationship to humans

The red-whiskered bulbuls and red-vented bulbuls have been captured for the pet trade in great numbers and have been widely introduced to tropical and subtropical areas, for example, southern Florida, Fiji, Australia and Hawaii. Some species[ which? ] are regarded as crop pests, particularly in orchards.[ citation needed ]

In general, bulbuls and greenbuls are resistant to human pressures on the environment and are tolerant of disturbed habitat. Around 13 species are considered threatened by human activities, mostly specialised forest species that are threatened by habitat loss.

Related Research Articles

Old World warblers are a large group of birds formerly grouped together in the bird family Sylviidae. They are not closely related to the New World warblers. The family held over 400 species in over 70 genera, and were the source of much taxonomic confusion. Two families were split out initially, the cisticolas into Cisticolidae and the kinglets into Regulidae. In the past ten years they have been the subject of much research and many species are now placed into other families, including the Acrocephalidae, Cettiidae, Phylloscopidae, and Megaluridae. In addition some species have been moved into existing families or have not yet had their placement fully resolved. A smaller number of warblers, together with some babblers formerly placed in the family Timaliidae and the parrotbills, are retained in a much smaller family Sylviidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sombre greenbul</span> Species of bird

The sombre greenbul is a member of the bulbul family of passerine birds. It is a resident breeder in coastal bush, evergreen forest and dry shrub land in eastern and southern Africa. It is the only member of the genus Andropadus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenbul</span> Common name for certain birds in the family Pycnonotidae

The greenbuls are a group of birds within the bulbul family Pycnonotidae, found only within Africa. They are all largely drab olive-green above, and paler below, with few distinguishing features.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bernieridae</span> Family of birds

The tetrakas, also known as the Malagasy warblers, are a recently validated family of songbirds. They were formally named Bernieridae in 2010. The family currently consists of eleven species of small forest birds. These birds are all endemic to Madagascar.

<i>Arizelocichla</i> Genus of birds

Arizelocichla is a genus of greenbuls, songbirds in the bulbul family (Pycnonotidae). The genus was revived in 2010 when twelve species of bulbuls from the genus Andropadus were separated and re-classified in the genus Arizelocichla.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slender-billed greenbul</span> Species of bird

The slender-billed greenbul is a species in the monotypic genus Stelgidillas of the bulbul family of passerine birds. It is found in western and central Africa. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forest, subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest, and subtropical or tropical moist montane forest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Falkenstein's greenbul</span> Species of songbird

Falkenstein's greenbul is a species of songbird in the bulbul family, Pycnonotidae. It is found from western Cameroon and Central African Republic to central Angola. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, moist savanna, and subtropical or tropical moist shrubland.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yellow-gorgeted greenbul</span> Species of bird

The yellow-gorgeted greenbul, formerly known as the yellow-throated leaflove, is a species of passerine bird in the bulbul family Pycnonotidae. It is found in West Africa. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests, moist savanna, and subtropical or tropical moist shrubland.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western bearded greenbul</span> Species of songbird

The western bearded greenbul is a species of songbird in the bulbul family, Pycnonotidae. It is found in West Africa. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests and subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.

<i>Criniger</i> Genus of birds

Criniger is a genus of songbirds in the bulbul family, Pycnonotidae. The species of Criniger are found in western and central Africa.

<i>Hemixos</i> Genus of birds

Hemixos is a songbird genus in the bulbul family, Pycnonotidae.

<i>Hypsipetes</i> Genus of birds

Hypsipetes is a genus of bulbuls, songbirds in the family Pycnonotidae. Most of its species occur in tropical forests around the Indian Ocean. But while the genus is quite diverse in the Madagascar region at the western end of its range it does not reach the African mainland.

<i>Ixos</i> Genus of birds

Ixos is a genus of passerine birds in the bulbul family, Pycnonotidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sulphur-bellied bulbul</span> Species of bird

The sulphur-bellied bulbul is a songbird species in the bulbul family, Pycnonotidae. It is endemic to Palawan (Philippines). Its natural habitat is tropical moist lowland forests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Philippine bulbul</span> Species of bird

The Philippine bulbul is a songbird species in the bulbul family, Pycnonotidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zamboanga bulbul</span> Species of bird

The Zamboanga bulbul is a songbird species in the bulbul family, Pycnonotidae. It is endemic to the Philippines, where its natural habitat is tropical moist lowland forests of Basilan and the Zamboanga Peninsula. It is becoming rare due to habitat loss.

<i>Pycnonotus</i> Genus of birds

Pycnonotus is a genus of frugivorous passerine birds in the bulbul family Pycnonotidae.

<i>Iole</i> (bird) Genus of birds

Iole is a genus of songbirds in the bulbul family, Pycnonotidae. They are native to tropical eastern Asia, from India to China and south through Southeast Asia to northern Indonesia.

<i>Eurillas</i> Genus of birds

Eurillas is a genus of greenbuls, passerine birds in the bulbul family Pycnonotidae.

The Cebu bulbul also known as the Cebu slaty-crowned bulbul or the Cebu streak-breasted bulbul is a subspecies of the streak-breasted bulbul. It is endemic to the Philippines found only on the island of Cebu where its natural habitat is tropical moist lowland forest. Thought extinct until its rediscovery in 1996, it is threatened by habitat loss and hunting. It is likely that this will eventually be split into a separate species and if so will become one of the most endangered species in the world.

References

  1. Gray, George Robert (1840). A List of the Genera of Birds : with an Indication of the Typical Species of Each Genus. London: R. and J.E. Taylor. p. 28.
  2. Bock, Walter J. (1994). History and Nomenclature of Avian Family-Group Names. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. Vol. 222. New York: American Museum of Natural History. pp. 201, 237. hdl:2246/830.
  3. Fishpool & Tobias 2005, pp.  161–162.
  4. Cibois, Alice; Slikas, Beth; Shulenberg, Thomas S.; Pasquet, Eric (2001). "An endemic radiation of Malagasy songbirds is revealed by mitochondrial DNA sequence data". Evolution. 55 (6): 1198–1206. doi:10.1554/0014-3820(2001)055[1198:AEROMS]2.0.CO;2. PMID   11475055.
  5. Cibois, Alice; David, Normand; Gregory, Steven M. S.; Pasquet, Eric (2010). "Bernieridae (Aves: Passeriformes): a family-group name for the Malagasy sylvioid radiation". Zootaxa. 2554: 65–68. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.2554.1.6.
  6. Beresford, P.; Barker, F.K.; Ryan, P.G.; Crowe, T.M. (2005). "African endemics span the tree of songbirds (Passeri): molecular systematics of several evolutionary 'enigmas'". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 272 (1565): 849–858. doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.2997. PMC   1599865 . PMID   15888418.
  7. Johansson, U.S.; Fjeldså, J.; Bowie, R.C.K. (2008). "Phylogenetic relationships within Passerida (Aves: Passeriformes): A review and a new molecular phylogeny based on three nuclear intron markers". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 48 (3): 858–876. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2008.05.029. PMID   18619860.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (August 2024). "Bulbuls". IOC World Bird List Version 14.2. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 6 September 2024.
  9. Johansson, U.S.; Fjeldså, J.; Lokugalappatti, L.G.S.; Bowie, R.C.K. (2007). "A nuclear DNA phylogeny and proposed taxonomic revision of African greenbuls (Aves, Passeriformes, Pycnonotidae)". Zoologica Scripta. 36 (5): 417–427. doi:10.1111/j.1463-6409.2007.00290.x. S2CID   84799480.
  10. 1 2 3 Shakya, Subir B.; Sheldon, Frederick H. (2017). "The phylogeny of the world's bulbuls (Pycnonotidae) inferred using a supermatrix approach". Ibis. 159 (3): 498–509. doi: 10.1111/ibi.12464 .
  11. Cai, T.; Cibois, A.; Alström, P.; Moyle, R.G.; Kennedy, J.D.; Shao, S.; Zhang, R.; Irestedt, M.; Ericson, P.G.P.; Gelang, M.; Qu, Y.; Lei, F.; Fjeldså, J. (2019). "Near-complete phylogeny and taxonomic revision of the world's babblers (Aves: Passeriformes)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 130: 346–356. doi: 10.1016/j.ympev.2018.10.010 . PMID   30321696.
  12. Fuchs, J.; Pasquet, E.; Stuart, B.L.; Woxvold, I.A.; Duckworth, J.W.; Bowie, R.C.K. (2018). "Phylogenetic affinities of the enigmatic Bare-faced Bulbul Pycnonotus hualon with description of a new genus". Ibis. 160 (3): 659–665. doi:10.1111/ibi.12580.
  13. Dunning, John B. Jr., ed. (2008). CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses (2nd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN   978-1-4200-6444-5.
  14. Fishpool & Tobias 2005, p.  146.
  15. Fishpool & Tobias 2005, p.  151.
  16. Fishpool & Tobias 2005, pp.  154–155.

Sources