Ecological evolutionary developmental biology

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Ecological evolutionary developmental biology (eco-evo-devo) is a field of biology combining ecology, developmental biology and evolutionary biology to examine their relationship. The concept is closely tied to multiple biological mechanisms. The effects of eco-evo-devo can be a result of developmental plasticity, the result of symbiotic relationships or epigenetically inherited. The overlap between developmental plasticity and symbioses rooted in evolutionary concepts defines ecological evolutionary developmental biology. Host- microorganisms interactions during development characterize symbiotic relationships, whilst the spectrum of phenotypes rooted in canalization with response to environmental cues highlights plasticity. [1] Developmental plasticity that is controlled by environmental temperature may put certain species at risk as a result of climate change.

Contents

Phenotypic plasticity

Phenotypic or developmental plasticity is the alteration of development through environmental factors. [2] These factors can induce multiple types of variants that increase the fitness of an organism based on the environment they are in. These alterations can be for defense, predation, sex determination, and sexual selection. [2]

Plasticity-driven adaptation acts on evolution in three ways by phenotypic accommodation, genetic accommodation, and genetic assimilation. Phenotypic accommodation is when a organism adjusts its phenotype to better fit its environment without being genetically induced. [3] [2] The trait that is selected by the environment through phenotypic accommodation can then be integrated into the genome. This process is called genetic accommodation. Genetic accommodation allows for traits that were produced by the environment to be passed on, and it gives better responses to environmental changes. [4] Lastly, genetic assimilation is when the induced phenotype is fixed into the genome. The trait is no longer environmentally induced. At this stage plasticity is lost because when the environmental stimulus is lost the phenotype still remains. [2] [5]

In some cases species change their environment to suit them. This phenomenon is called niche construction. These organisms can change unfavorable conditions to fit them. These changes relieve selective pressures to give an advantage they would have otherwise. These advantages could be creating shelters like nests and burrows, modifying the environment physically or chemically, or making shade. [2] [6]

Epigenetic inheritance

Epigenetic heritance is the inheritance of epigenetic marks on the DNA induced by environmental factors. A simple examples of this is permutation, this was described first in plants. What happens is the shape or color of the seed alters the homologous allele. [7] These marks alter gene expression patterns, which can be transmitted to the next generation. This means that environmental cues can influence the development of the organism’s offspring.

This is similar to the evolution theory of Lamarck. He stated that an organism can pass physical characteristics that the parent organism acquired through use or disuse during its lifetime on to its offspring. Though, this is not entirely true, a lot of organisms have traits or genes that they don't use but epigenetic inheritance, like environmental factors such as temperature or food availability during the parent’s life can impact the development of the offspring. An example of this is nutrition in the youth, genes aren't the only thing that control things in the body. Poor nutrition can slow down and heavily delay the smooth transition of puberty in a child. [8]

This can also force some genes that were null to become activated and other genes to turn off. [9] Many do not consider this phenomenon, and it is quite interesting to consider that things like malnutrition and temperature in one organism can affect the following generations of that organism. [7]

Symbiotic interactions

Amphiprion ocellaris (Clown anemonefish) by Nick Hobgood.jpg

Symbiosis describes the relationship between two species living closely together in an environment, and symbiotic interactions are significant influences on eco-evo-devo dynamics. Many symbiotic organisms have co-evolved and, over time, have become reliant on these relationships. The effect on either involved organism may be positive, neutral, or negative, and these effects are used to broadly categorize different types of symbiotic relationships. Symbiotic relationships generally fall into the categories of mutualism, commensalism, parasitism/predation, amensalism, or competition, although other categorizations may be used to describe more complex or uncommon interactions. The relationship between clownfish and anemones is one example of a mutualistic symbiosis. [10] Mutualisms are particularly common between ectotherms, making these symbiotic relationships some of the most threatened by climate change. [11]

Climate change

Climate change may alter the development of organisms. As a type of developmental plasticity, the sex determination of particular animals can be influenced by the temperature of the environment. Some Reptiles and ray-finned fish rely on temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD). The determination takes place during a specific period of the embryonic development. Although the exact mechanisms of this type of sex determination remains unknown for most species, temperature sensitive proteins that determine the sex of alligators have been found. [12] The effects of rising temperatures can already be seen in animals, for example the green sea turtle. Sea turtles produce more females when exposed to higher temperatures. [13] As a result adult green turtle populations are currently 65% female on cooler beaches, but can reach 85% on their warmer nesting beaches. [14] In contrast to the rising female proportion of sea turtles, the fish that use TSD, such as the southern flounder, generally produce more males in response to higher temperatures. [15] Species that are strongly influenced by temperature in their sex determination may be particularly at risk from climate change. From an evolutionary standpoint, sea turtles' sex chromosomes differ from other species of reptiles, and this difference makes them susceptible to TSD. Researchers believe this phenomenon is worth studying as climate change may one day have an effect on other types of vertebrates. [16]

Rising global temperatures may decrease the amount of genetic variation, hurting specific species' chance at survival. [17] Having a large gene pool is crucial when it comes to being able to adapt to environmental conditions and disease. Climate change can lower the amount of genetic diversity in a population over time and is extremely detrimental to the overall fitness of individuals in a given population. [18]

Climate change affects more than just animals when it comes to development. It affects people as well, especially those in developing countries. For example, expecting mothers who are in areas where droughts are more common due to climate change, may suffer from dehydration which can have harmful effects on their child's development. [19] Dehydration can cause amniotic fluid levels to be lower, which directly correlates to the baby's development and can even cause premature birth. [20] Malnutrition in children is a huge problem in developing countries. Rising global temperatures can alter growing seasons for certain food groups, making it hard for children to get the proper nutrients they need for ideal human development. [21]

Ecological, evolutionary, developmental biology compares these subgenres of biology. Interaction between organisms and the environment is very important. Climate change intensely alters these interactions and is cause for concern in regard to the overall well-being of our ecological landscape. Climate change affects humans, animals, plants, and bacteria and their symbiotic relationships with each other drastically. It is important for scientists, researchers, and people around the world to work together to find the best strategy to preserve biological diversity and to slow down the rising global temperatures and the effects of climate change.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Heredity</span> Passing of traits to offspring from the species parents or ancestor

Heredity, also called inheritance or biological inheritance, is the passing on of traits from parents to their offspring; either through asexual reproduction or sexual reproduction, the offspring cells or organisms acquire the genetic information of their parents. Through heredity, variations between individuals can accumulate and cause species to evolve by natural selection. The study of heredity in biology is genetics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Evolutionary developmental biology</span> Comparison of organism developmental processes

Evolutionary developmental biology is a field of biological research that compares the developmental processes of different organisms to infer how developmental processes evolved.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Baldwin effect</span> Effect of learned behavior on evolution

In evolutionary biology, the Baldwin effect describes an effect of learned behaviour on evolution. James Mark Baldwin and others suggested that an organism's ability to learn new behaviours will affect its reproductive success and will therefore have an effect on the genetic makeup of its species through natural selection. It posits that subsequent selection might reinforce the originally learned behaviors, if adaptive, into more in-born, instinctive ones. Though this process appears similar to Lamarckism, that view proposes that living things inherited their parents' acquired characteristics. The Baldwin effect only posits that learning ability, which is genetically based, is another variable in / contributor to environmental adaptation. First proposed during the Eclipse of Darwinism in the late 19th century, this effect has been independently proposed several times, and today it is generally recognized as part of the modern synthesis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polyphenism</span> Type of polymorphism where different forms of an animal arise from a single genotype

A polyphenic trait is a trait for which multiple, discrete phenotypes can arise from a single genotype as a result of differing environmental conditions. It is therefore a special case of phenotypic plasticity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Facilitated variation</span>

The theory of facilitated variation demonstrates how seemingly complex biological systems can arise through a limited number of regulatory genetic changes, through the differential re-use of pre-existing developmental components. The theory was presented in 2005 by Marc W. Kirschner and John C. Gerhart.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phenotypic plasticity</span> Trait change of an organism in response to environmental variation

Phenotypic plasticity refers to some of the changes in an organism's behavior, morphology and physiology in response to a unique environment. Fundamental to the way in which organisms cope with environmental variation, phenotypic plasticity encompasses all types of environmentally induced changes that may or may not be permanent throughout an individual's lifespan.

<i>Origination of Organismal Form</i> 2003 biology anthology edited by Gerd Müller and Stuart A. Newman

Origination of Organismal Form: Beyond the Gene in Developmental and Evolutionary Biology is an anthology published in 2003 edited by Gerd B. Müller and Stuart A. Newman. The book is the outcome of the 4th Altenberg Workshop in Theoretical Biology on "Origins of Organismal Form: Beyond the Gene Paradigm", hosted in 1999 at the Konrad Lorenz Institute for Evolution and Cognition Research. It has been cited over 200 times and has a major influence on extended evolutionary synthesis research.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Canalisation (genetics)</span> Measure of the ability of a population to produce the same phenotype

Canalisation is a measure of the ability of a population to produce the same phenotype regardless of variability of its environment or genotype. It is a form of evolutionary robustness. The term was coined in 1942 by C. H. Waddington to capture the fact that "developmental reactions, as they occur in organisms submitted to natural selection...are adjusted so as to bring about one definite end-result regardless of minor variations in conditions during the course of the reaction". He used this word rather than robustness to consider that biological systems are not robust in quite the same way as, for example, engineered systems.

Genetic assimilation is a process described by Conrad H. Waddington by which a phenotype originally produced in response to an environmental condition, such as exposure to a teratogen, later becomes genetically encoded via artificial selection or natural selection. Despite superficial appearances, this does not require the (Lamarckian) inheritance of acquired characters, although epigenetic inheritance could potentially influence the result. Waddington stated that genetic assimilation overcomes the barrier to selection imposed by what he called canalization of developmental pathways; he supposed that the organism's genetics evolved to ensure that development proceeded in a certain way regardless of normal environmental variations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Temperature-dependent sex determination</span> Environmental sex determination by temperature during development

Temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) is a type of environmental sex determination in which the temperatures experienced during embryonic/larval development determine the sex of the offspring. It is observed in reptiles and teleost fish, with some reports of it occurring in species of shrimp. TSD differs from the chromosomal sex-determination systems common among vertebrates. It is the most studied type of environmental sex determination (ESD). Some other conditions, e.g. density, pH, and environmental background color, are also observed to alter sex ratio, which could be classified either as temperature-dependent sex determination or temperature-dependent sex differentiation, depending on the involved mechanisms. As sex-determining mechanisms, TSD and genetic sex determination (GSD) should be considered in an equivalent manner, which can lead to reconsidering the status of fish species that are claimed to have TSD when submitted to extreme temperatures instead of the temperature experienced during development in the wild, since changes in sex ratio with temperature variation are ecologically and evolutionally relevant.

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Developmental plasticity is a general term referring to changes in neural connections during development as a result of environmental interactions as well as neural changes induced by learning. Much like neuroplasticity, or brain plasticity, developmental plasticity is specific to the change in neurons and synaptic connections as a consequence of developmental processes. A child creates most of these connections from birth to early childhood. There are three primary methods by which this may occur as the brain develops, but critical periods determine when lasting changes may form. Developmental plasticity may also be used in place of the term phenotypic plasticity when an organism in an embryonic or larval stage can alter its phenotype based on environmental factors. However, a main difference between the two is that phenotypic plasticity experienced during adulthood can be reversible, whereas traits that are considered developmentally plastic set foundations during early development that remain throughout the life of the organism.

Ralf Josef Sommer is a German biologist specializing in evolutionary developmental biology.

Sex reversal is a biological process whereby the pathway directed towards the already determined-sex fate is flipped towards the opposite sex, creating a discordance between the primary sex fate and the sex phenotype expressed. The process of sex reversal occurs during embryonic development or before gonad differentiation. In GSD species, sex reversal means that the sexual phenotype is discordant with the genetic/chromosomal sex. In TSD species, sex reversal means that the temperature/conditions that usually trigger the differentiation towards one sexual phenotype are producing the opposite sexual phenotype.

The Extended Evolutionary Synthesis (EES) consists of a set of theoretical concepts argued to be more comprehensive than the earlier modern synthesis of evolutionary biology that took place between 1918 and 1942. The extended evolutionary synthesis was called for in the 1950s by C. H. Waddington, argued for on the basis of punctuated equilibrium by Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge in the 1980s, and was reconceptualized in 2007 by Massimo Pigliucci and Gerd B. Müller.

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Temporal plasticity, also known as fine-grained environmental adaptation, is a type of phenotypic plasticity that involves the phenotypic change of organisms in response to changes in the environment over time. Animals can respond to short-term environmental changes with physiological (reversible) and behavioral changes; plants, which are sedentary, respond to short-term environmental changes with both physiological and developmental (non-reversible) changes.

References

  1. ↑ Gilbert SF, Bosch TC, Ledón-Rettig C (October 2015). "Eco-Evo-Devo: developmental symbiosis and developmental plasticity as evolutionary agents". Nature Reviews. Genetics. 16 (10): 611–622. doi:10.1038/nrg3982. PMID   26370902. S2CID   205486234.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Gilbert, Scott, F. and David Epel. Ecological Developmental Biology. Available from: Yuzu Reader, (2nd Edition). Oxford University Press Academic US, 2015.
  3. ↑ West-Eberhard MJ (November 2005). "Phenotypic accommodation: adaptive innovation due to developmental plasticity". Journal of Experimental Zoology. Part B, Molecular and Developmental Evolution. 304 (6): 610–618. Bibcode:2005JEZB..304..610W. doi:10.1002/jez.b.21071. PMID   16161068.
  4. ↑ Gilbert SF, Bosch TC, Ledón-Rettig C (October 2015). "Eco-Evo-Devo: developmental symbiosis and developmental plasticity as evolutionary agents". Nature Reviews. Genetics. 16 (10): 611–622. doi:10.1038/nrg3982. PMID   26370902.
  5. ↑ Nijhout HF, Kudla AM, Hazelwood CC (2021). "Genetic assimilation and accommodation: Models and mechanisms". Current Topics in Developmental Biology. 141: 337–369. doi:10.1016/bs.ctdb.2020.11.006. ISBN   978-0-12-814968-3. PMID   33602492.
  6. ↑ Laland K, Matthews B, Feldman MW (2016). "An introduction to niche construction theory". Evolutionary Ecology. 30 (2): 191–202. Bibcode:2016EvEco..30..191L. doi:10.1007/s10682-016-9821-z. PMC   4922671 . PMID   27429507.
  7. 1 2 Martin C, Zhang (26 April 2007). "Mechanisms of epigenetic inheritance". Current Opinion in Cell Biology. 19 (3): 266–272. doi:10.1016/j.ceb.2007.04.002. PMID   17466502 – via Science Direct.
  8. ↑ Writer LF (2024-03-27). "Nutrition and puberty: The best way to feed your child's growth". Inside Children's Blog. Retrieved 2024-04-17.
  9. ↑ Horsthemke B (2018-07-30). "A critical view on transgenerational epigenetic inheritance in humans". Nature Communications. 9 (1): 2973. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-05445-5. ISSN   2041-1723. PMC   6065375 . PMID   30061690.
  10. ↑ "Symbiosis: The Art of Living Together". education.nationalgeographic.org. Retrieved 2024-03-31.
  11. ↑ Six DL (October 2009). "Climate change and mutualism". Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 7 (10): 686. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2232. PMID   19756007.
  12. ↑ Yatsu R, Miyagawa S, Kohno S, Saito S, Lowers RH, Ogino Y, et al. (December 2015). "TRPV4 associates environmental temperature and sex determination in the American alligator". Scientific Reports. 5 (1): 18581. Bibcode:2015NatSR...518581Y. doi:10.1038/srep18581. PMC   4683465 . PMID   26677944.
  13. ↑ Reneker JL, Kamel SJ (December 2016). "Climate change increases the production of female hatchlings at a northern sea turtle rookery". Ecology. 97 (12): 3257–3264. Bibcode:2016Ecol...97.3257R. doi: 10.1002/ecy.1603 . PMID   27912005. S2CID   205779228.
  14. ↑ Jensen MP, Allen CD, Eguchi T, Bell IP, LaCasella EL, Hilton WA, et al. (January 2018). "Environmental Warming and Feminization of One of the Largest Sea Turtle Populations in the World". Current Biology. 28 (1): 154–159.e4. Bibcode:2018CBio...28E.154J. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2017.11.057 . PMID   29316410. S2CID   30322533.
  15. ↑ Honeycutt JL, Deck CA, Miller SC, Severance ME, Atkins EB, Luckenbach JA, et al. (April 2019). "Warmer waters masculinize wild populations of a fish with temperature-dependent sex determination". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 6527. Bibcode:2019NatSR...9.6527H. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-42944-x. PMC   6483984 . PMID   31024053.
  16. ↑ Janzen FJ, Paukstis GL (June 1991). "Environmental sex determination in reptiles: ecology, evolution, and experimental design". The Quarterly Review of Biology. 66 (2): 149–179. doi:10.1086/417143. PMID   1891591. S2CID   35956765.
  17. ↑ Razgour O, Forester B, Taggart JB, Bekaert M, Juste J, Ibáñez C, et al. (May 2019). "Considering adaptive genetic variation in climate change vulnerability assessment reduces species range loss projections". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 116 (21): 10418–10423. Bibcode:2019PNAS..11610418R. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1820663116 . PMC   6535011 . PMID   31061126.
  18. ↑ "Gene Pool - Definition, Types, Working, Importance, Evolution, Examples". 2023-06-19. Retrieved 2024-04-11.
  19. ↑ Lusambili A, Nakstad B (May 2023). "Awareness and interventions to reduce dehydration in pregnant, postpartum women, and newborns in rural Kenya". African Journal of Primary Health Care & Family Medicine. 15 (1): e1–e3. doi:10.4102/phcfm.v15i1.3991. PMC   10244926 . PMID   37265162.
  20. ↑ "Dehydration during pregnancy: Early symptoms and prevention". www.medicalnewstoday.com. 2018-06-22. Retrieved 2024-04-08.
  21. ↑ Gregory PJ, Ingram JS, Brklacich M (November 2005). "Climate change and food security". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 360 (1463): 2139–2148. doi:10.1098/rstb.2005.1745. PMC   1569578 . PMID   16433099.
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