Emirate of Erzincan | |
|---|---|
 Erzincan, c. 1400 | |
| Status | Emirate |
| Capital | Erzincan |
| Religion | Islam |
| Government | Monarchy |
| Emir | |
• 1348–1362 | Ahi Ayna |
• 1362–1379 | Pir Husayn |
• 1379–1403 | Mutahharten |
The Emirate of Erzincan was an emirate that controlled much of Eastern Anatolia in the fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries.
A local ahī , Ahi Ayna purchased control of Erzincan from his predecessor sometime before 1348. [1] Ahi Ayna first appears in records as a vassal of Eretna circa 1348. [2] Michael Panaretos wrote that in June 1348, Ahi Ayna led a joint attack against the Empire of Trebizond together with Tur Ali Beg of Aq Qoyunlu Turkmens and Muhammad Rikabdar, Emir of Bayburt. He returned to Erzincan after 3 days of campaign was inconclusive. [3]
Following Eretna's death, Ahi Ayna exercised autonomy and attempted to increase his sphere of influence. [4] An Armenian colophon of 1355 mentions that Ahi Ayna was attacked by "Khochay Yali," likely Khoja Latif of Bayburt. [5] In June 1362, Ghiyath al-Din Ahi Ayna Beg went on an expedition in Georgia. He captured Akhaltsikhe, Samstskhe, and Atsquri, took 12,000 people captive, and had Manglisi pay jizya. [6] On 6 August 1361, Ahi Ayna continued his expedition in the region of Lazica, i.e. eastern territories of the Empire of Trebizond. In October of that year, he besieged but wasn't able to capture the fortresses of Golacha and Koukos. [7]
Ahi Ayna was the suzerain of three other emirates, namely those in Erzurum, Bayburt, and Karahisar. His core territory stretched from the Erzincan Plain southwards to Upper Euphrates Valley near Çaltı. Kemah was under the administration of a governor instead of a vassal emir like Ahi Ayna. [8] Although Ahi Ayna acted semi-independently during the reign of Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad I of the Eretnid Sultanate, an Eretnid coin minted in Erzincan from the year 1359 indicates that Ahi Ayna's subordinate position continued and he never declared independence. [9] Ahi Ayna died on 2–3 July 1362 reportedly as a shahīd (martyr), suggesting a violent death. [10]
Pir Husayn, who was originally the ruler of Karahisar, arrived in Erzincan on 8 June 1362 and succeeded Ahi Ayna Beg. In Abu Bakr Qutbi's Ta'rīkh-i taqwīm, he is mentioned as an emīr-zāda (lit. 'son of an emir') following the statement about Ahi Ayna's demise, hinting at the possibility he was Ahi Ayna's son. [11]
Pir Husayn's ascendance to the throne was not straightforward as Erzincan was in the midst of a civil war. He "gained independence" on 10 July, [11] having clashed with emirs opposing his rule, who eventually fled to Bayburt and Tercan. [12] On 11 September, he gained control of Bayburt after a 32-day siege. [11]
Although there is a coin specimen minted in Erzincan for Ala al-Din Ali dating back to 1366, Pir Hsayn most likely exercised further autonomy, especially following the temporary political vacuum caused by Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad I's death in 1365. However, there aren't any sufficient accounts of the period until Pir Husayn's death in 1379. [13]
Mutahharten took power upon Pir Husayn's death in 1379. He issued his own coins and had the khutbah (sermon) read in his name as a declaration of his sovereignty. [14] Although the Eretnid vizier Kadi Burhan al-Din opposed an immediate campaign, the Eretnid sultan Ali began marching towards Erzincan in the summer of 1379. [15] Mutahharten initially faced defeat in a bloody battle and retreated but still resisted coming under Eretnid rule. He sought the help of external powers, such as the Dulkadirids and Aq Qoyunlu, who sent a large army to Erzincan. [16] The Eretnids subsequently faced a major loss, and Ali retreated to Sivas. [17]
Kadi Burhan al-Din's (r. 1381–98) rise to power as the regent of Ali's successor Muhammad II Chelebi (r. 1380–81), and his aim at re-imposing authority over the region, prompted Mutahharten to form alliances with Burhan al-Din's rivals and other claimants to the Eretnid throne, such as Shadgeldi, Emir of Amasya (r. 1359–60/1, 1361/2–81). Mutahharten further built amicable relations with several vassals of Burhan al-Din. While Shadgeldi was besieging Tokat, Mutahharten and his allies pushed into Burhan al-Din's domains. However, their 2,000-strong force were eventually defeated by Burhan al-Din. [18] Mutahharten sent an embassy to Burhan al-Din, demanding that he return the throne to Ali's son, Muhammad II Chelebi, who was too young to rule. [19] Burhan al-Din later imprisoned Mutahharten's embassy, which caused Mutahharten to change his stance, sending apologies and offering an alliance instead. Although Kadi Burhan al-Din released his embassy, he sent Shadgeldi's head to Erzincan in 1381 as a warning after having defeated him on the battlefield. The same year, Kadi Burhan al-Din formally declared his sultanate. [20]
Allied with several Mongol and Turkmen chieftains, Mutahharten went on another campaign on Sivas. [21] After having dealt with his rivals in the northern region around Amasya, Tokat, and Osmancık until spring 1383, Burhan al-Din focused on his struggle east against Mutahharten. [22] The latter received Aq Qoyunlu aid, headed by Ahmad Aq Qoyunlu (r. 1389–1403), leading an initially successful joint offensive. Conversely, Burhan al-Din reached Erzincan and razed parts of the city to the ground but was unable to capture the city with winter creeping in (1384–5). [23] Burhan al-Din's return to Sivas marked the end of the long war between him and Mutahharten. They agreed to recognize each other's sovereignty and to refrain from getting involved in each other's internal relations. Mutahharten was further obliged to send military aid to Kadi Burhan al-Din in times of war. [24]
In late 1386, Timur (r. 1370–1405), a Turco-Mongol warlord who attempted to invoke the legacy of Genghis Khan, invaded west Iran and was planning his invasion of the Armenian highlands from his military camp in Karabakh. When Timur's embassy arrived in Erzincan, Mutahharten swiftly agreed to refrain from joining opposition forces and to abide by Timur's rule, which reduced his fears of a direct Timurid attack. [25] Timur recognized Mutahharten's domains through an exchange of gifts. Although Mutahharten halted his campaigns in Anatolia during this time, Timur's presence was favored by him and other enemies of Burhan al-Din. [26]
When Timur's focus shifted away from the region, Mutahharten used the Qara Qoyunlu Turkomans who took refuge in his territory in an expedition in Burhan al-Din's lands, taking advantage of Burhan al-Din's absence as he was dealing with the local Turkoman principalities to the north. Burhan al-Din returned to Sivas when he learned that Mutahharten was marching there, prompting Mutahharten to stop the campaign in the winter of 1387–8. In 1387, Mutahharten reported Burhan al-Din to the Mamluk Sultan Barquq (r. 1382–89, 1390–99) as an ally of Timur, which initiated a joint campaign with the Mamluks on Sivas that lasted until the Mamluks retreated from the region in 1389. [27]
Mutahharten broke the alliance with the Aq Qoyunlu upon the death of Qutlugh (r. 1362–89) and the succession of his son Ahmed (r. 1389–1403). Mutahharten was ultimately overpowered on the battlefield. This prompted him to seek the assistance of Qara Mahammad (r. 1380–89) of the Qara Qoyunlu. They flanked the Aq Qoyunlu forces, who took refuge under Burhan al-Din. Shortly after, Mutahharten and Qara Yusuf (r. 1389–1420), Qara Mahammad's son and successor, planned a major war on the Aq Qoyunlu, but were defeated near Endris. Qara Yusuf was captured, and Mutahharten fled to Erzincan. The latter prepared for a counter-attack in Shamsat (located between Harpoot and Bayburt) and reentered Aq Qoyunlu territory. He stationed his army on the right bank of Murat River near the town of Gulushkerd, confronting the Aq Qoyunlu forces on the opposite side. Although Ahmad Aq Qoyunlu wanted to make peace with Mutahharten, to whom his daughter was married, Mutahharten was defeated a second time at the hands of Ahmad's brother, Qara Yuluk (r. 1378–1435). [28]
Upon the news of another Timurid expedition in 1393–4, Mutahharten reaffirmed his allegiance to Timur. He acted as an ambassador during Timur's siege of Avnik. The author of Bazm u Razm , Astarabadi, who was hostile to Mutahharten, described his actions during this period as cowardly. Astarabadi claimed that Mutahharten stopped administering his region altogether. After allegedly kissing Timur's stirrup, Mutahharten changed the name on his coins and the khutba to Timur's and tried to provoke him to invade all of Anatolia and Syria. [29] However, Timur left Mutahharten without a liege when he departed for Georgia to subdue Tokhtamysh of the Golden Horde (r. 1379–80, 1380–96). [30]
In retribution for Mutahharten's allegiance to Timur, Burhan al-Din took the fortresses of Ezdebir, Sis, and Burtulush. Though, when he departed for Sivas, the guards of these fortresses betrayed him and surrendered control to Mutahharten. With the support of Ahmad Aq Qoyunlu, Burhan al-Din decimated the region of Erzincan for a whole month and granted the Aq Qoyunlu the territory around Bayburt. [31] On 27 October 1395, Mutahharten clashed with Burhan al-Din at Pulur. Although Mutahharten came out victorious there, Burhan al-Din continued to pursue Mutahharten until Burhan al-Din was killed by Qara Yuluk on 14 July 1398. [32]
The Ottoman sultan Bayezid I (r. 1389–1402) annexed Sivas in 1398 and demanded that Mutahharten accept his suzerainty. Instead, Mutahharten relied on Timur, who conquered Sivas in August 1400. Bayezid did not shy away from striking back and advanced as far as Erzincan in 1401, where he took Mutahharten [33] and his Trapezuntine wife captive. [34] Mutahharten was ultimately released and restored as the ruler when Qara Yusuf, who had been given control of the place, did not fare well with the locals. [33] Mutahharten momentarily acted as an intermediary between the Ottomans and the Timurids, but soon participated in the latter's Anatolian campaign that would become a major blow to the Ottomans at the Battle of Ankara. [33] Mutahharten died in late 1403. [35] He had no surviving male issue. [34]
Ahi Ayna is known to have built a takya (building for Sufi gatherings) known after himself in the city of Erzincan. Mutahharten's legacy in Erzincan includes a madrasa (school) and zawiya (Sufi building). [36] During the period of the emirate, Erzincan was the scene of literary exchange and production. Sati ibn al-Hasan, a well-respected lord and history-writer from Erzincan, is thought to have sourced the paper from Damascus, paying 6000 dirhams, for his work titled Tarikh-i Chingiz Khan (lit. 'the history of Genghis Khan '), which also went through the binding process in Hama before arriving in Erzincan. [37] A copy of Rumi's Masnavi prepared by Muhammad ibn Husayn al-Mawlawi in January–February 1373 probably in Erzincan for "Taj al-Din Shaykh Husayn Beg" is attributed to Pir Husayn's patronage. [38]
The Qara Qoyunlu or Kara Koyunlu, also known as the Black Sheep Turkomans, were a culturally Persianate, Muslim Turkoman monarchy that ruled over the territory comprising present-day Azerbaijan, Armenia, northwestern Iran, eastern Turkey, and northeastern Iraq from about 1374 to 1468.
The Candar dynasty, also known as the Isfendiyar dynasty, was an Oghuz Turkic princely Anatolian dynasty that reigned in the territories corresponding to the provinces of Eflani, Kastamonu, Sinop, Zonguldak, Bartın, Karabük, Samsun, Bolu, Ankara and Çankırı in present-day Turkey from the year 1291 to 1461. The region was known in Western literature as Paphlagonia, a name applied to the same geographical area during the Roman period.
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The Eretnids were a dynasty that ruled a state spanning central and eastern Anatolia from 1335 to 1381. The dynasty's founder, Eretna, was an Ilkhanid officer of Uyghur origin, under Timurtash, who was appointed as the governor of Anatolia. Some time after the latter's downfall, Eretna became the governor under the suzerainty of the Jalayirid ruler Hasan Buzurg. After an unexpected victory at the Battle of Karanbük, against Mongol warlords competing to restore the Ilkhanate, Eretna claimed independence declaring himself the sultan of his domains. His reign was largely prosperous earning him the nickname Köse Peyghamber.
Kadi Ahmad Burhan al-Din was vizier to the Eretnid rulers of Anatolia. In 1381, he took over Eretnid lands and claimed the title of sultan for himself. He is most often referred to by the title Qadi, a name for Islamic judges, which was his first occupation.
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Ala al-Din Eretna was the first sultan of the Eretnids, reigning between 1343–1352 in central and eastern Anatolia. Initially an officer in the service of the Ilkhanate officer Chupan and his son Timurtash, Eretna migrated to Anatolia following Timurtash's appointment as the Ilkhanid governor of the region. He took part in Timurtash's campaigns to subdue the Turkoman chiefs of the western periphery of the peninsula. This was cut short by Timurtash's downfall, after which Eretna went into hiding. Upon the dissolution of the Ilkhanate, he aligned himself with the Jalayirid leader Hasan Buzurg, who eventually left Anatolia for Eretna to govern when he returned east to clash with the rival Chobanids and other Mongol lords. Eretna later sought recognition from Mamluk Egypt to consolidate his power, although later he played a delicate game of alternating his allegiance between the Mamluks and the Mongols. In 1343, he declared independence as the sultan of his domains. His reign was largely described to be prosperous, with his efforts to maintain order in his realm such that he became known as Köse Peyghamber.
The Battle of Kırkdilim was fought in July 1391 or 1392 between the Ottoman Ertuğrul Çelebi son of Bayezid I, and Kadi Burhan al-Din, ruler of northeastern Anatolia. The details of the battle are debated: Burhan al-Din's court poet Ibn Ardashir presents Bayezid's campaign being ended by a major victory for his master, which temporarily halted Ottoman expansion in Anatolia, but the contemporary letters of Manuel II Palaiologos, who accompanied Bayezid on his Anatolian campaigns, contain no indications of a major clash, and point to the expedition having been an Ottoman success overall.
Qara Mahammad Barani Yiwa was a bey of the Qara Qoyunlu and father of Qara Yusuf.
Abu Bakr Tihrani was an Iranian secretary, who served under the Timurid, Qara Qoyunlu, and Aq Qoyunlu dynasties in the 15th century. Initially serving in the provincial divan of the Timurid ruler Shah Rukh, Tihrani shifted his allegiance to the rising Qara Qoyunlu leader Jahan Shah, whom he accompanied in his campaigns. However, with the downfall of the Qara Qoyunlu and the rise of the Aq Qoyunlu leader Uzun Hasan, Tihrani eventually joined the latter in April 1469, becoming one of his close companions. He played an influential role in the correspondence of the Aq Qoyunlu, and also became their court historian, composing the Kitab-i Diyarbakriyya in 1473/4, the main account of the Qara Qoyunlu and Aq Qoyunlu. The last mention of Tihrani is in 1481; he probably died not longer after.
Fakhr al-Din Qutlugh-bey was the second Aq Qoyunlu bey, ruling from 1362-1389. His full name was Haji Fakhr al-Din Kutlug ibn Tur Ali-bey.
Ahmad ibn Kutlug, was the third bey of the Aq Qoyunlu confederation (1389-1403).
Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad I was the second Sultan of the Eretnids in central and eastern Anatolia, ruling from 1352 until his death. He was enthroned at a young age and struggled to maintain his authority over the state his father, Eretna, had founded. Although he was initially preferred over his older brother Jafar, Muhammad was deposed by his emirs early into his reign and was replaced by Jafar. After some time in exile, he returned, restored his throne, and killed his brother. Though, throughout his reign, he dealt with rebellions and lost land to local Turkoman lords, the Dulkadirids, and the Ottomans. After putting an end to his former vizier Khoja Ali Shah's revolt and returning to the capital, Kayseri, Muhammad was murdered by his emirs, who crowned his son Ali as the new sultan.
Suleiman Beg was the ruler of Dulkadir from 1442 until his death. During the reign of his father's, Nasir al-Din Mehmed, he served as the wali (governor) of Kayseri. His reign was relatively uneventful. His major accomplishment was the arrangement of the political marriages of his daughters to the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II and the regnant Mamluk Sultan Sayf al-Din Jaqmaq. Towards the end of his reign, Suleiman was involved in the internal struggle of the Aq Qoyunlu and led an unsuccessful siege on Çemişgezek. He had numerous offspring, among whom four sons would consecutively rule the state. He was succeeded by Malik Arslan.
Ala al-Din Ali was the third Sultan of the Eretnids ruling from 1366 until his death. He inherited the throne at a very early age and was removed from administrative matters. He was characterized as particularly keen on personal pleasures, which later discredited his authority. During his rule, emirs under the Eretnids enjoyed considerable autonomy, and the state continued to shrink as neighboring powers captured several towns. The capital, Kayseri, temporarily came under Karamanid control. Kadi Burhan al-Din rose to power as the new vizier and dispatched Ali to lead several campaigns, most of which were unsuccessful. Ali died of the plague in Kazova in an expedition to subdue Shadgeldi, the emir of Amasya.
Mutahharten, also known as Taharten, was Emir of Erzincan from 1379 until his death. Erzincan was previously ruled by emirs who exercised autonomy as vassals of the Eretnids. Mutahharten claimed sovereignty from the Eretnids when he assumed power, which prompted the Eretnid Sultan Ala al-Din Ali to go on an expedition to reinstate his authority over Erzincan. While Mutahharten ultimately repelled Ali, the latter was replaced by his vizier Kadi Burhan al-Din, who was determined to restore the sultanate's former boundaries. Burhan al-Din and Mutahharten were involved in a long-lasting conflict. Upon the advent of Timur, Mutahharten contently swore allegiance and halted his campaigns in Anatolia, but Timur's departure reignited the conflict between Mutahharten and Burhan al-Din. Often overpowered by his enemies, Mutahharten forged alliances with various groups but did not hesitate to turn against his former allies, such as the Aq Qoyunlu, when he saw fit. On the other hand, Mutahharten's relations with the Empire of Trebizond and his Christian subjects were consistent, as he favored them for their economic contribution to his realm through trade.
Ghiyath al-Din Ahi Ayna Beg was Emir of Erzincan from 1348 until his death. Thought to be a local ahi, he gained control of the region and the city of Erzincan in northeastern Anatolia through a purchase from his unknown predecessor sometime before 1348. He was initially loyal to Eretna, a former Ilkhanate officer who forged his own sovereign state. After Eretna's death, Ahi Ayna practiced some degree of autonomy within the Eretnid Sultanate. He waged multiple wars against the neighboring Christian states, the Empire of Trebizond and the Kingdom of Georgia. He is recorded to have died a shaheed (martyr) and was succeeded by Pir Husayn.
Pir Husayn was Emir of Erzincan from 1362 until his death. He was originally the ruler of Karahisar and arrived in Erzincan on 8 June 1362 and succeeded Ahi Ayna, who died on 2–3 July 1362 reportedly as a shaheed (martyr). In Abu Bakr Qutbi's Tarikh-i taqwim, Pir Husayn is mentioned as an emir-zada directly following the statement about Ahi Ayna's demise, hinting at the possibility he was Ahi Ayna's son.
Taj al-Din Chelebi was Beg of Limnia in northeastern Anatolia from 1367 until his death.
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