Foulden Maar

Last updated

Foulden Maar
Maar
Foulden Marr Pit KC 2019.jpg
Foulden Maar pit as seen from Moonlight Road
Foulden Maar
Coordinates: 45°31′36″S170°13′06″E / 45.5268°S 170.2184°E / -45.5268; 170.2184
Location Otago, New Zealand
Age Miocene, ~23.2  Ma
Ꞓ
O
S
D
C
P
T
J
K
Pg
N
↓
Volcanic fieldWaipiata

Foulden Maar is a fossil site near Middlemarch in Otago, New Zealand. The fossils were deposited in the small deep crater lake of a maar formed around 23 million years ago by a volcano in the Miocene era. The crater lake existed for a period of around 130,000 years, and during this time it gradually filled up with diatomite, composed of annual layers of silica-shelled algae (diatoms). These layers of diatomite have preserved exceptional fossils of fish from the crater lake, and plants, spiders and insects from the sub-tropical forest that developed around the crater. The site is the only known maar of its kind in the Southern Hemisphere and is one of New Zealand's pre-eminent fossil sites. A 2018 proposal to mine Foulden Maar for livestock-food additive attracted significant public opposition. The mining company went into receivership in 2019, and in 2023, the Dunedin City Council reached an agreement with the receivers to purchase the land, including the surrender of the mining permits.

Contents

Etymology

Foulden Maar is named for the nearby farm of Foulden Hills, itself probably named after the town of Foulden in the Scottish Borders. Many other local locations—such as Kelso, Ettrick, Roxburgh, and the nearby Nenthorn—are similarly named. [1]

Volcanology

Foulden Maar
Foulden Maar (red symbol) with map showing nearby surface basalt deposits. Clicking on the map enlarges it, and enables panning and mouseover of volcano name/wikilink and ages before present. Key for the volcanics that are shown with panning is:    basalt (shades of brown/orange),    monogenetic basalts,   undifferentiated basalts,   arc basalts,   arc ring basalts,    olivine (basalts shades of olive),    phonolite (pale salmon),    dacite ,    andesite (shades of red),   basaltic andesite,    rhyolite , (ignimbrite is lighter shades of violet), and   plutonic or intusive (gray) - so dolerite/diabase/microgabbro will have shadings towards gray compared to erupted basalt.

Dunedin Volcanic Group

The landscape of the east Otago region includes a large number of volcanoes. Early studies indicated there were separate volcanic areas within the region – Waipiata Volcanic Field and the Dunedin Volcanic Group which contained the Dunedin Volcano and basaltic monogenetic volcanoes like the maar. However, later research has found that these volcanic fields overlap in both space and time. [2]

Foulden Maar is now considered to be one of around 150 volcanoes in the Dunedin Volcanic Group. Eruptions within the group began around 25 Ma near Middlemarch and finished with the youngest in the group by around 9 Ma. [2] The group is considered extinct. [3] : 20 

The maar

A maar is a volcanic crater with a low rim that is formed in an explosion (known as a phreatomagmatic eruption), when magma or hot lava comes into contact with groundwater. The maar typically fills with water to become a crater lake. Foulden Maar is a maar-diatreme volcano. The diatreme is a long vertical conduit where gas-filled magma rises to the surface of the Earth during an eruption.

The Foulden Maar crater is filled with fossilised diatomite as well as sedimentary rock, debris flows, and pyroclastic rocks. [4] [5]

Dating the eruption

Two main methods have been used for dating the eruption of Foulden Maar. These are biostratigraphy and radiometric dating, based on analysis of samples from drill cores to depth of 180 metres (590 ft) taken at the site in June 2009.

Biostratigraphy

Sedimentary rocks in New Zealand can be dated using analysis based on existing data about the first and last occurrences of key taxa in fossil records. Fossil pollen from the Foulden Maar drill cores has been dated at 23 Ma with reference to fossil pollen found at other fossil sites in Southland and Otago. [3] : 36 

Radiometric dating

This method uses the known rate of decay of radioactive isotopes present in minerals. In this case, the analysis was based on the decay of isotopes of argon. Analysis of volcanic clast taken from a depth of 126 metres (413 ft) in the drill core indicated an age of 23.38 Ma. [3] : 37  Subsequent dating adjustment is to 23.2 ± 0.4 Ma. [2]

Other evidence

A geomagnetic reversal was discovered in minerals at a depth of around 107 metres (351 ft) in the drill core. A global magnetic polarity time scale shows few reversals in the general time frame indicated by other dating methods for the eruption, and the reversal found in the drill core provides supporting evidence for the age. [3] : 37 

Geology

Holotype of the ant Austroponera schneideri Austroponera schneideri OU44901 holotype worker.jpg
Holotype of the ant Austroponera schneideri

The Foulden Maar crater is approximately 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) in diameter; its diatomaceous layer is estimated to be 200 metres (660 ft) deep. [6] The Foulden Maar lake formed in a volcanic crater during the Waitakian (early Miocene), approximately 23 million years ago. [4] [7] It was deep and anoxic at the bottom, which precluded decomposition of plant and animal remains. The lake was hydrologically isolated, meaning that no rivers or streams disturbed the sedimentation, which formed multiple laminated layers. These thin layers of silica are known as diatomite, as they are composed primarily of one diatom species, Encyonema jordaniforme Krammer, that grew on submerged rocks or aquatic plants in the lake. [8] [9] As the lake gradually filled in and dried out, the diatomite layers capture a detailed fossil record of about 130,000 years. [10]

Palaeontology

Foulden Maar is one of New Zealand's pre-eminent fossil sites, and is unique in the Southern Hemisphere for the time period it covers. [11] [12] Fossils were first discovered at the site by gold prospectors in the early 1870s and were described as "polishing powder" by the geologists Frederick Hutton and George Ulrich in 1875. [13]

Although excavations have been limited to a small area the size of a tennis court, palaeontologists have discovered hundreds of undescribed species. [14] The sediments are rich in fossil flowers, fruits, seeds, pollen, and bark from plants, as well as fungi. Several new species of plants have been discovered, and the fossil plant genus Fouldenia is named in honour of its type locality Foulden Maar. [15]

Fossilised freshwater fish are common. The earliest galaxiid fish fossil and the earliest known fossilised eel both come from Foulden Maar. [16] Numerous arthropod fossils have been found at the site, among them Araneae (spiders), Plecoptera (stoneflies), Odonata (dragonflies), Isoptera (termites), Hemiptera (true bugs), Diptera (true flies), Coleoptera (beetles), Trichoptera (caddis flies), and Hymenoptera (wasps, ants and bees). [6] The four arachnids found at Foulden Maar are the first arachnid fossils identified in New Zealand; previous spider specimens had been found in amber but were not identifiable. [17] The first fossil hymenopteran in New Zealand is an ant found at Foulden Maar. [18] Fossils of immature aquatic flies obtained from Foulden Maar are helping scientists to shed light on the ecological history of true flies in New Zealand. [19]  

Palaeoecology

This reconstruction of the lake at Foulden Maar 23 million years ago was commissioned by palaeontologist Dr. Daphne Lee and drawn by artist/ecologist Dr. Paula Peeters Foulden Maar reconstruction by Paula Peeters.jpg
This reconstruction of the lake at Foulden Maar 23 million years ago was commissioned by palaeontologist Dr. Daphne Lee and drawn by artist/ecologist Dr. Paula Peeters

The fossil evidence derived from pollen and spores suggests a warm temperate or sub-tropical rain forest with canopy trees, with an understorey of shrubs, ferns and on the margins pioneer species. Climatically, the area resembled modern-day south-eastern Queensland with species that no longer occur in the New Zealand flora. [8] The lake contained small and large galaxiid fishes and eels, ducks (inferred from coprolites), and likely crocodiles as well. [20] [21]

Leaf fossils from the deposit have been used to link past spikes in carbon dioxide levels with melting of Antarctic ice, [22] [23] [24] and the variations in the laminations of the diatomite have been studied to reveal the New Zealand climate from that time. [10]

Mining

Diatomite was extracted in small quantities from the site during World War II when transport difficulties hindered access to foreign sources. [25] [26] Diatomite has a range of applications, depending primarily on purity, diatom size, and the trace elements present.

1990s operation

Foulden Maar is on privately owned land. The area was initially developed for mining by Featherston Resources Ltd in 1997. [27] The deposit was estimated as 5 million tonnes (Mt) by NZ Petroleum and Minerals. [28] This proved uneconomic for the company, and its assets were sold to Plaman Resources Ltd in March 2015. [27]

2019 proposal

Plaman Resources claimed the size of the deposit was 31 Mt. [29] The shareholders for Plaman Resources are Iris Corporation, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (50.95 percent) and Burleigh Nominees Ltd, Douglas, Isle of Man (49.05 percent). [30] Plaman Resources' shareholders, the Iris Corporation and Burleigh Nominees, have allegedly been involved in corruption and humans-rights abuses and have unpaid debts. [31] It was unclear if Iris Corporation would remain a shareholder of Plaman if Overseas Investment Office (OIO) approval for the mine was received. [32]

Galaxias effusus from Foulden Maar is the oldest known species of Galaxias, the group to which whitebait belong. Galaxias effusus whole (cropped).jpg
Galaxias effusus from Foulden Maar is the oldest known species of Galaxias, the group to which whitebait belong.

Plaman held the mining rights and planned to turn all of the fossil-containing diatomite into an additive for incorporating into the food of intensively farmed animals such as ducks and pigs. [33] Initial seed funding of about US$20 million (NZ$28 million) was raised through Goldman Sachs New Zealand Holdings, the Auckland branch of New York stock-exchange listed investment bank in August 2018. [34] The financial viability of these plans was reported to hinge on the purchase of an adjoining farm, which the OIO must rule on. [11] [35] No timetable was set for the decision. [36] The proposal involved building a new $36.8m processing plant at Milton to crush the diatomite before shipping offshore from Port Chalmers or Bluff. It was estimated by the company that the trucking and processing would create 100 jobs over 27 years. [33] Plaman discussed with local councils applying to New Zealand's Provincial Growth Fund for help with the costs of building the processing plant, although no application was made. [37]

Previous mining at the site yielded low-quality diatomite only suitable for inclusion in concrete, rather than the high-quality product Plaman was marketing as "Black Pearl". [35] Plaman claimed that livestock will benefit nutritionally from Black Pearl, because the diatomite is "rich in natural organic matter (which contains humics, such as humic and fulvic acid) and other valuable nutrients, which have been shown to be beneficial in animal nutrition." [38] Animal nutrition experts expressed doubt that the product produced by Plaman will have any animal-health benefits, as there is no published data to support their claims. [39] Concerns were expressed by the New Zealand Green Party that the diatomite would be sold as fertiliser to support the production of palm oil. [27]

Plaman Resources offered to refrain from mining nearby Hindon Maar if opposition to the Foulden Maar proposal was dropped. They also offered to set aside 5 hectares (12 acres) (12–20% of the deposit) of the eastern pit at Foulden Maar for scientific research, [40] but geologists said that if the deposit is drained for mining the fossils may be lost regardless. [41]

The company was placed in receivership and voluntary liquidation in June 2019, and the OIO approval process was placed on hold. [42] [43] The Save Foulden Maar group considered crowdfunding to permanently protect the site. [44]

Opposition

Some locals were opposed to the anticipated levels of dust, noise, and general disruption the proposed mine would create. [35] The Otago Regional Council granted Plaman Resources resource consent to discharge air dust for the purpose of quarrying diatomite until 1 July 2020. [45] The original mining permit was for 20 years but was extended to November 2033. [46] A wider group of people concerned about the loss of the unique fossil record described as "Dunedin's Pompeii" and an "irreplaceable treasure box" [35] [47] launched a petition to preserve the site, garnering nearly 10,000 signatures in the first month. [31] [48] [49] A leaked report by Goldman Sachs details the engagement of former Labour MP Clayton Cosgrove as a lobbyist to "secure approval" for the mine. [35]

Some locals wanted to see the area turned into a geo-park, along similar lines to other diatomite sites in Norway, Germany, and China. [47] [50] Former Prime Minister Helen Clark suggested that the site could be protected as a scientific reserve under the Reserves Act 1977, [51] saying "It just doesn't stack up. It's a question of values. Do we value knowledge? Do we value natural heritage? Do we value science and research, or do we just want to a quick dollar from a low value pit? I mean, really, it's distressing." [31] [52] [53]

MP Clare Curran voiced support for the mining proposal, saying that she had been given assurances by Plaman. [53] She argued that "misinformation" was abundant due to the slow overseas-investment-approval process and said that the resource-consent process would still need to be followed. [53] Dunedin Mayor Dave Cull, who wrote a letter of support for the mining proposal, publicly called for clarification from Plaman after hearing details of the leaked Goldman Sachs report. [54] Clutha Mayor Bryce Cadogan, who also supported the proposal, expressed frustration that commercial sensitivity prevented the release of all the information in favour of the mine. [54]

Dunedin City Council councillor Aaron Hawkins proposed that the council should "recognise the importance of Foulden Maar, and support its preservation, and protection as a scientific resource", and the council voted to do so, later formally opposing the mining proposal. [55] [56] The council made this decision after hearing from Daphne Lee, a palaeontologist and associate professor at the University of Otago, explaining the scientific importance of the site. [57] The University of Otago also formally opposed the mining proposal. [58] Sir Alan Mark, chair of the environmental group the Wise Response Society, called for the government to purchase the site and establish a geological reserve. [59]

Juliet Gerrard, the Prime Minister's Chief Science Adviser, said that "the tale is far from simple and at least two weak spots at the interface of science and policy are exposed as we dig through the complexities: there is no obvious point in central government to consider the value of a fossil record; and the science community has perhaps not previously sufficiently communicated the national and international value of this geological site." [60] The Geoscience Society of New Zealand called for the mining proposal to be stopped, with President Jennifer Eccles saying, "New Zealand’s national identity is strongly bound to its unique plants and animals. We cannot stand by and see this fountain of paleontological knowledge about where we have come from destroyed; particularly not for so little transient local and national gain." [12] [61]

In November 2019, the Dunedin City Council issued a "notice of desire" under the Public Works Act, signalling the intention to purchase the land and return it to public ownership. [62] As of September 2022, the Dunedin City Council had not proceeded with acquiring the land under the Public Works Act, and the protection of the site remained unclear. Scientists were unable to access the site. [63]

Surrender of mining permits

In February 2023, the Dunedin City Council reached an agreement with the receivers for Plaman Resources for the purchase 42 hectares (100 acres) of land at the site. The agreement included Plaman surrendering mining permits. The total cost of the purchase was $924,000. [64] [65]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">South Island</span> One of the two main New Zealand islands

The South Island is the largest of the three major islands of New Zealand in surface area, the other being the smaller but more populous North Island and sparsely populated Stewart Island. It is bordered to the north by Cook Strait, to the west by the Tasman Sea, to the south by the Foveaux Strait and Southern Ocean, and to the east by the Pacific Ocean. The South Island covers 150,437 square kilometres (58,084 sq mi), making it the world's 12th-largest island, constituting 56% of New Zealand's land area. At low altitudes, it has an oceanic climate. The major centres are Christchurch, with a metropolitan population of 521,881, and the smaller Dunedin. The economy relies on agriculture, fishing, tourism, and general manufacturing and services.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">University of Otago</span> Public university in New Zealand

The University of Otago is a public research collegiate university based in Dunedin, Otago, New Zealand. Founded in 1869, Otago is New Zealand's oldest university and one of the oldest universities in Oceania.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Otago</span> Region of New Zealand

Otago is a region of New Zealand located in the southern half of the South Island administered by the Otago Regional Council. It has an area of approximately 32,000 square kilometres (12,000 sq mi), making it the country's second largest local government region. Its population was 257,200 in June 2024.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dunedin</span> City in Otago, New Zealand

Dunedin is the second-largest city in the South Island of New Zealand, and the principal city of the Otago region. Its name comes from Dùn Èideann, the Scottish Gaelic name for Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland. The city has a rich Māori, Scottish, and Chinese heritage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maar</span> Low-relief volcanic crater

A maar is a broad, low-relief volcanic crater caused by a phreatomagmatic eruption. A maar characteristically fills with water to form a relatively shallow crater lake, which may also be called a maar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Clayton Cosgrove</span> New Zealand politician

Clayton James Cosgrove is a former New Zealand politician. He is a member of the Labour Party.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Otago gold rush</span> 1860s gold rush in Central Otago, New Zealand

The Otago gold rush was a gold rush that occurred during the 1860s in Central Otago, New Zealand. This was the country's biggest gold strike, and led to a rapid influx of foreign miners to the area – many of them veterans of other hunts for the precious metal in California and Victoria, Australia. The number of miners reached its maximum of 18,000 in February 1864.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dunedin Hospital</span> Hospital in Otago, New Zealand

Dunedin Hospital is the main public hospital in Dunedin, New Zealand. It serves as the major base hospital for the Otago and Southland regions with a potential catchment radius of roughly 300 kilometres, and a population catchment of around 330,000.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Saddle Hill (New Zealand)</span> Hill in Dunedin, Otago Region, New Zealand

Saddle Hill is a prominent landmark overlooking the northeastern end of the Taieri Plains in Otago, New Zealand. Within the limits of Dunedin city, it is located 18 kilometres to the west of the city centre, between Mosgiel and Green Island, and is clearly visible from many of the city's southern hill suburbs. A lookout on the northern slopes of the hill commands a good view across the plains, with Lake Waihola visible 25 kilometres to the west in clear weather.

The natural history of New Zealand began when the landmass Zealandia – today an almost entirely submerged mass of continental crust with New Zealand and a few other islands peaking above sea level – broke away from the supercontinent Gondwana in the Cretaceous period. Before this time, Zealandia shared its past with Australia and Antarctica. Since this separation, the New Zealand landscape has evolved in physical isolation, although much of its current biota has more recent connections with species on other landmasses. The exclusively natural history of the country ended in about 1300 AD, when humans first settled, and the country's environmental history began. The period from 1300 AD to today coincides with the extinction of many of New Zealand's unique species that had evolved there.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Volcanism of New Zealand</span> Volcanic activity of New Zealand

The volcanism of New Zealand has been responsible for many of the country's geographical features, especially in the North Island and the country's outlying islands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geology of New Zealand</span>

The geology of New Zealand is noted for its volcanic activity, earthquakes and geothermal areas because of its position on the boundary of the Australian Plate and Pacific Plates. New Zealand is part of Zealandia, a microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that broke away from the Gondwanan supercontinent about 83 million years ago. New Zealand's early separation from other landmasses and subsequent evolution have created a unique fossil record and modern ecology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Manuherikia Group</span>

The Manuherikia Group is a fluvial-lacustrine sedimentary fill in the Central Otago area of New Zealand, at the site of the prehistoric Lake Manuherikia. The area consists of a valley and ridge topography, with a series of schist-greywacke mountains at roughly ninety degrees to each other. The Manuherika Group occurs in the current basins, and occasionally on the mountains themselves.

Lake Manuherikia was a prehistoric lake which once stretched over some 5,600 square kilometres (2,200 sq mi) in what is now inland Otago in New Zealand's South Island. It stretched from Bannockburn and the Nevis valley in the west to Naseby in the east, and from the Waitaki valley in the north to Ranfurly in the south, including much of the area now referred to as the Maniototo. The lake existed from around 19 to 16 million years ago during the Miocene epoch, at which point New Zealand was significantly warmer than the present.

<i>Galaxias effusus</i> Species of fish

Galaxias effusus is an extinct species of fish in the genus Galaxias, known only from 23-million-year-old fossils from New Zealand. It is named for its dramatically large dorsal, tail, and anal fins, which are much larger than those of any living New Zealand galaxiid. It is the earliest known member of the Southern Hemisphere family Galaxiiidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aaron Hawkins (politician)</span> New Zealand politician

Aaron Garth Hawkins is a New Zealand politician who served as the 58th mayor of Dunedin, New Zealand from 2019 to 2022. He was elected as Mayor on 12 October 2019 with 54.54% of the vote, after two prior terms as councillor. He is endorsed by the Green Party. He unsuccessfully stood for re-election as mayor in 2022. Hawkins subsequently co-founded a re-wilding project called Floruit.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Smaills Beach</span> Clothing-optional beach in Dunedin, New Zealand

Smaills Beach is a beach on the Pacific Ocean 7.6 kilometres (4.7 mi) southeast of the city centre of Dunedin, New Zealand. Located within the Ocean Grove Reserve adjacent to Tomahawk Beach, at the point where Otago Peninsula joins the mainland of the South Island, Smaills Beach is a white sand beach for much of its length, but its western end is covered in volcanic boulders. Just offshore from the beach, dominating the wave patterns of the surf, is the rocky outcrop known as Bird Island. Smaills Beach is clothing-optional, renowned for its wildlife, and popular with surfers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dunedin Writers & Readers Festival</span> Literary festival in New Zealand

The Dunedin Writers & Readers Festival is a literary festival held in Dunedin, in the South Island of New Zealand. Since its inception in 2014, there have been in total six festivals, including a special Celtic Noir event in 2019. The event is based mainly at the Dunedin Public Art Gallery but utilises Toitū Otago Settlers Museum, the Otago Pioneer Women's Memorial Hall, the Dunedin Central Library and in 2021 the central live music venue Dog with Two Tails. Festival events include talks, book launches, workshops, a storytrain or storybus, and in some years the unveiling of a new plaque on the Dunedin Writers' Walk.

Daphne E. Lee is a New Zealand geologist, palaeontologist and emeritus professor at the University of Otago. She is best known for her work on Foulden Maar and her research into fossils discovered at that site.

The Dunedin volcanic group is a volcanic group that covers over 7,800 km2 (3,000 sq mi) of Otago in the South Island of New Zealand. It is a recent reclassification of the group previously known as the Waiareka-Deborah volcanic field due to common magma melt ancestries of the Dunedin Volcano with the overlapping alkali basaltic monogenetic volcanic field. Excluded from the group are a group of volcanics of different composition and older age near Oamaru, which have been given the name previously used for the Dunedin group. The older Waiareka-Deborah volcanic field overlaps the new Dunedin volcanic group geographically; though Dunedin Volcano has been well studied from the 1880s since New Zealand's first school of geology was established at the University of Otago, detailed studies of north-central volcanoes such as the Crater near Middlemarch were done much later, and high-quality composition studies still need to be done to properly classify many volcanics near Oamaru.

References

  1. ↑ Reed, A. W. (2010). Peter Dowling (ed.). Place Names of New Zealand. Rosedale, North Shore: Raupo. pp. 201, 268, 354. ISBN   978-0-14-320410-7.
  2. 1 2 3 Scott, James M.; Pontesilli, Alessio; Brenna, Marco; White, James D. L.; Giacalone, Emanuele; Palin, J. Michael; le Roux, Petrus J. (2020). "The Dunedin Volcanic Group and a revised model for Zealandia's alkaline intraplate volcanism". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics. 63 (4): 510–529. Bibcode:2020NZJGG..63..510S. doi:10.1080/00288306.2019.1707695. S2CID   212937447.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Lee, Daphne; Conran, John; Kaulfuss, Uwe (2022). Fossil Treasures of Foulden Maar: A window into Miocene Zealandia (1st ed.). Dunedin: Otago University Press. ISBN   978-1-99-004835-7. OL   38152412M. Wikidata   Q114442587.
  4. 1 2 Kaulfuss, Uwe (2013). Geology and Paleontology of Foulden Maar, Otago, New Zealand (Doctor of Philosophy thesis). University of Otago. Archived from the original on 10 May 2019. Retrieved 10 May 2019.
  5. ↑ Jones, Daniel Amir (2012). The Geophysical Characterisation of the Foulden Maar (Master of Science thesis). University of Otago. Archived from the original on 10 May 2019. Retrieved 11 May 2019.
  6. 1 2 Lee, Daphne E.; Kaulfuss, Uwe; Conran, John G.; Bannister, Jennifer M.; Lindqvist, Jon K. (1 October 2016). "Biodiversity and palaeoecology of Foulden Maar: an early Miocene Konservat-Lagerstätte deposit in southern New Zealand". Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology. 40 (4): 525–541. Bibcode:2016Alch...40..525L. doi:10.1080/03115518.2016.1206321. ISSN   0311-5518. S2CID   132004293.
  7. ↑ "Fossilworks: Gateway to the Paleobiology Database". fossilworks.org. Retrieved 17 December 2021.
  8. 1 2 Mildenhall, Dallas C.; Kennedy, Elizabeth M.; Lee, Daphne E.; Kaulfuss, Uwe; Bannister, Jennifer M.; Fox, Bethany; Conran, John G. (2014). "Palynology of the early Miocene Foulden Maar, Otago, New Zealand: Diversity following destruction". Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology. 204: 27–42. Bibcode:2014RPaPa.204...27M. doi:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2014.02.003.(subscription required)
  9. ↑ Harper, Margaret A.; Van De Vijver, Bart; Kaulfuss, Uwe; Lee, Daphne E. (2019). "Resolving the confusion between two fossil freshwater diatoms from Otago, New Zealand: Encyonema jordanii and Encyonema jordaniforme (Cymbellaceae, Bacillariophyta)". Phytotaxa. 394 (4): 231–243. doi:10.11646/phytotaxa.394.4.1. ISSN   1179-3163. S2CID   92579845.
  10. 1 2 Lindqvist, Jon K.; Lee, Daphne E. (1 December 2009). "High-frequency paleoclimate signals from Foulden Maar, Waipiata Volcanic Field, southern New Zealand: An Early Miocene varved lacustrine diatomite deposit". Sedimentary Geology. 222 (1–2): 98–110. Bibcode:2009SedG..222...98L. doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2009.07.009.
  11. 1 2 Hartley, Simon (20 April 2019). "Leaked report sheds light on mine project". Otago Daily Times. Archived from the original on 22 April 2019. Retrieved 11 May 2019.
  12. 1 2 "GSNZ Release". Google Docs. Archived from the original on 18 October 2021. Retrieved 17 May 2019.
  13. ↑ Hutton, F.W.; Ulrich, G.H.F. (1875). Report on the geology and goldfields of Otago. Dunedin, NZ: Mills.
  14. ↑ McPhee, Elena (30 May 2019). "Paleontologist breaks silence: 'horrified' over Foulden Maar". Otago Daily Times. Archived from the original on 28 May 2019. Retrieved 30 May 2019.
  15. ↑ Bannister, Jennifer M.; Lee, Daphne E.; Raine, J. Ian (January 2005). "Morphology and palaeoenvironmental context of Fouldenia staminosa, a fossil flower with associated pollen from the Early Miocene of Otago, New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Botany. 43 (2): 515–525. Bibcode:2005NZJB...43..515B. doi:10.1080/0028825X.2005.9512972. ISSN   0028-825X.
  16. ↑ Hartley, Simon (2 June 2018). "Miners, scientists unlikely allies". Otago Daily Times . Archived from the original on 10 May 2019. Retrieved 10 May 2019.
  17. ↑ Selden, Paul A.; Kaulfuss, Uwe (2 January 2019). "Fossil arachnids from the earliest Miocene Foulden Maar Fossil-Lagerstätte, New Zealand". Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology. 43 (1): 165–169. Bibcode:2019Alch...43..165S. doi:10.1080/03115518.2018.1450446. ISSN   0311-5518. S2CID   115142767.
  18. ↑ Kaulfuss, Uwe; Harris, Anthony C.; Conran, John G.; Lee, Daphne E. (2 October 2014). "An early Miocene ant (subfam. Amblyoponinae) from Foulden Maar: the first fossil Hymenoptera from New Zealand". Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology. 38 (4): 568–574. Bibcode:2014Alch...38..568K. doi:10.1080/03115518.2014.928181. ISSN   0311-5518. S2CID   129724250.
  19. ↑ Baranov, Viktor O.; Haug, Joachim T.; Kaulfuss, Uwe (26 February 2024). "New records of immature aquatic Diptera from the Foulden Maar Fossil-Lagerstätte, New Zealand, and their biogeographic implications". PeerJ. 12: e17014. doi: 10.7717/peerj.17014 . ISSN   2167-8359. PMC   10903341 . PMID   38426144.
  20. ↑ "Fossil Hunt". RNZ. 17 March 2011. Archived from the original on 11 May 2019. Retrieved 14 May 2019.
  21. ↑ Peeters, Paula (18 August 2016). "Drawing on Queensland's present to recreate New Zealand's past". Paperbark Writer. Archived from the original on 11 May 2019. Retrieved 11 May 2019.
  22. ↑ "Otago leaf fossils help solve major climate mystery". RNZ. 20 October 2016. Archived from the original on 10 May 2019. Retrieved 10 May 2019.
  23. ↑ Backhouse, Matthew (20 October 2016). "Ancient crater lake in Central Otago offers clues for Antarctica". The New Zealand Herald . Archived from the original on 12 May 2019. Retrieved 11 May 2019.
  24. ↑ Morford, Stacey (13 October 2016). "Historic Shrinking of Antarctic Ice Sheet Linked to CO2 Spike". Popular Science. Archived from the original on 13 May 2019. Retrieved 13 May 2019.
  25. ↑ "Skin-Deep Secrets". Evening Star (Dunedin, New Zealand). No. 23970. 22 August 1941. Archived from the original on 10 April 2021. Retrieved 20 May 2019– via Papers Past.
  26. ↑ "Otago Institute: Lecture by Dr. Watt". Otago Daily Times . No. 22341. 15 August 1934. Archived from the original on 18 October 2021. Retrieved 20 May 2019– via Papers Past.
  27. 1 2 3 Owens, Peter (8 February 2016). "Southland fertiliser popular with palm oil industries". Quarry & Mining Magazine. Archived from the original on 12 May 2019. Retrieved 12 May 2019.
  28. ↑ Christie T, Douch C, Winfield B, and Thompson B. "Industrial Minerals in New Zealand" . Undated. https://www.nzpam.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/doing-business/mineral-potential/industrial-minerals.pdf Archived 22 January 2019 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 19 May 2019
  29. ↑ "PLAMAN Global | Global Animal Nutrition and Health". PLAMAN Global. Archived from the original on 13 May 2019. Retrieved 17 May 2019.
  30. ↑ "Plaman Resources Ltd, Auckland". NZ Companies Office. Archived from the original on 18 October 2021. Retrieved 12 May 2019.
  31. 1 2 3 Hancock, Farrah (14 May 2018). "Who is the fossil mining company?". Newsroom. Archived from the original on 13 May 2019. Retrieved 14 May 2019.
  32. ↑ Hartley, Simon (15 May 2019). "Diatomite company's ownership uncertain". Otago Daily Times . Archived from the original on 14 May 2019. Retrieved 14 May 2019.
  33. 1 2 Hartley, Simon (28 May 2018). "Potential to create 100 jobs". Otago Daily Times. Archived from the original on 12 May 2019. Retrieved 12 May 2019.
  34. ↑ Ritchie, Neil (August 2018). "Mining Black Pearl". Quarrying & Mining Magazine. Archived from the original on 12 May 2019. Retrieved 12 May 2019.
  35. 1 2 3 4 5 Hancock, Farah (10 May 2019). "Dunedin's 'Pompeii' to be mined to make pig food". Newsroom. Archived from the original on 31 December 2019. Retrieved 10 May 2019.
  36. ↑ "Sage holds key to sale of Otago fossil land to diatomite miner". Stuff. 16 May 2019. Archived from the original on 17 May 2019. Retrieved 17 May 2019.
  37. ↑
  38. ↑ "PLAMAN Global | Product". PLAMAN Global. Archived from the original on 14 May 2019. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  39. ↑ "Fossil-dirt nutrition claims under doubt". Newsroom. 17 May 2019. Archived from the original on 18 October 2021. Retrieved 16 May 2019.
  40. ↑ "Mining company : "We have good motives here"". RNZ. 21 May 2019. Archived from the original on 5 June 2019. Retrieved 5 June 2019.
  41. ↑ "Scientists reject fossil land swap". Newsroom. 5 June 2019. Archived from the original on 9 February 2020. Retrieved 5 June 2019.
  42. ↑ "Company seeking to mine Foulden Maar placed into receivership". Radio New Zealand. 19 June 2019. Archived from the original on 19 June 2019. Retrieved 19 June 2019.
  43. ↑ "OIO puts Plaman application on hold". www.voxy.co.nz. Archived from the original on 25 June 2019. Retrieved 25 June 2019.
  44. ↑ Miller, Tim (21 June 2019). "Group considering crowdfunding to secure Foulden Maar". Otago Daily Times . Archived from the original on 20 June 2019. Retrieved 20 June 2019.
  45. ↑ "Discharge to air permit". data.orc.govt.nz. 26 June 2000. Archived from the original on 12 May 2019. Retrieved 12 May 2019.
  46. ↑ Hartley, Simon (13 November 2015). "Otago fertiliser to bolster oil palm plantations". Otago Daily Times . Archived from the original on 12 May 2019. Retrieved 12 May 2019.
  47. 1 2 Morris, Chris (9 May 2019). "Mine threat to fossil record". Otago Daily Times. Archived from the original on 11 May 2019. Retrieved 11 May 2019.
  48. ↑ Miller, Tim (15 May 2019). "Foulden Maar petition attracts support". Otago Daily Times . Archived from the original on 14 May 2019. Retrieved 14 May 2019.
  49. ↑ "Save Foulden Maar". ActionStation. Archived from the original on 26 June 2019. Retrieved 16 June 2019.
  50. ↑ Hartley, Simon (13 May 2019). "Helen Clark joins opposition to Middlemarch mine proposal". Otago Daily Times . Archived from the original on 12 May 2019. Retrieved 12 May 2019.
  51. ↑ Clark, Helen (11 May 2019). "A low value but very destructive proposed mining operation in #Otago NZ threatens a geologically significant site rich in fossils & of considerable scientific interest. Wondering: has it been considered for scientific reserve status under Reserves Act?https://www.newsroom.co.nz/2019/05/10/577063/dunedins-pompeii-to-be-mined-for-pig-food". @HelenClarkNZ. Archived from the original on 12 May 2019. Retrieved 12 May 2019.
  52. ↑ "Opposition grows to fossil mining". Newsroom. 13 May 2019. Archived from the original on 9 February 2020. Retrieved 12 May 2019.
  53. 1 2 3 Miller, Tim (14 May 2019). "Public lacks facts about mine: MP". Otago Daily Times. Archived from the original on 18 October 2021. Retrieved 14 May 2019.
  54. 1 2 Miller, Tim (15 May 2019). "Mayor wants clarification on diatomite mine proposal". Otago Daily Times . Archived from the original on 14 May 2019. Retrieved 14 May 2019.
  55. ↑
  56. ↑ Rawlence, Nic (14 June 2019). "Proposal to mine fossil-rich site in New Zealand sparks campaign to protect it". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 15 June 2019. Retrieved 16 June 2019.
  57. ↑ McNeilly, Hamish (28 May 2019). "Battle to save 'essential' Foulden Maar heats up". Stuff. Retrieved 13 August 2022.
  58. ↑ Miller, Tim (6 June 2019). "'Jaw-dropping inducements' over Foulden Marr". Otago Daily Times . Archived from the original on 5 June 2019. Retrieved 5 June 2019.
  59. ↑ Gibb, John (22 June 2019). "Plea to Govt to protect Foulden Maar". Otago Daily Times Online News. Archived from the original on 22 June 2019. Retrieved 24 June 2019.
  60. ↑ "Foulden Maar". www.pmcsa.ac.nz. Archived from the original on 17 May 2019. Retrieved 17 May 2019.
  61. ↑ Miller, Tim (16 May 2019). "Diatomite promoter hits back". Otago Daily Times . Archived from the original on 17 May 2019. Retrieved 17 May 2019.
  62. ↑ Taunton, Esther (4 November 2019). "Dunedin council steps in to protect Foulden Maar". Stuff. Retrieved 9 September 2022.
  63. ↑ "Foulden Maar's future still unclear as council refuses to discuss matter". RNZ. 3 January 2022. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
  64. ↑ "Foulden Maar: Dunedin City Council saves fossil site from mining by buying land". RNZ. 2 February 2023. Retrieved 2 February 2023.
  65. ↑ Miller, Grant (3 February 2023). "Foulden Maar purchase prevents mining, encourages scientists". Otago Daily Times Online News. Retrieved 2 February 2023.

Further reading

Commons-logo.svg Media related to Foulden Maar at Wikimedia Commons

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.