History of electronic engineering

Last updated

This article details the history of electronics engineering. Chambers Twentieth Century Dictionary (1972) defines electronics as "The science and technology of the conduction of electricity in a vacuum, a gas, or a semiconductor, and devices based thereon". [1]

Contents

Electronics engineering as a profession sprang from technological improvements in the telegraph industry during the late 19th century and in the radio and telephone industries during the early 20th century. People gravitated to radio, attracted by the technical fascination it inspired, first in receiving and then in transmitting. [2] Many who went into broadcasting in the 1920s had become "amateurs" in the period before World War I. [3] The modern discipline of electronics engineering was to a large extent born out of telephone-, radio-, and television-equipment development and the large amount of electronic-systems development during World War II of radar, sonar, communication systems, and advanced munitions and weapon systems. In the interwar years, the subject was known as radio engineering. The word electronics began to be used in the 1940s [4] In the late 1950s, the term electronics engineering started to emerge.

Electronic laboratories (Bell Labs, for instance) created and subsidized by large corporations in the industries of radio, television, and telephone equipment, began churning out a series of electronic advances. The electronics industry was revolutionized by the inventions of the first transistor in 1948, the integrated circuit chip in 1959, [5] [6] and the silicon MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor) in 1959. [7] [8] In the UK, the subject of electronics engineering became distinct from electrical engineering as a university-degree subject around 1960. (Before this time, students of electronics and related subjects like radio and telecommunications had to enroll in the electrical engineering department of the university as no university had departments of electronics. Electrical engineering was the nearest subject with which electronics engineering could be aligned, although the similarities in subjects covered (except mathematics and electromagnetism) lasted only for the first year of three-year courses.)

Electronics engineering (even before it acquired the name) facilitated the development of many technologies including wireless telegraphy, radio, television, radar, computers, and microprocessors.

Wireless telegraphy and radio

Some of the devices which would enable wireless telegraphy were invented before 1900. These include the spark-gap transmitter and the coherer with early demonstrations and published findings by David Edward Hughes (1880) [9] and Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1887 to 1890) [10] and further additions to the field by Édouard Branly, Nikola Tesla, Oliver Lodge, Jagadish Chandra Bose, and Ferdinand Braun. In 1896, Guglielmo Marconi went on to develop the first practical and widely used radio wave based communication system. [11] [12]

Millimetre wave communication was first investigated by Jagadish Chandra Bose during 1894–1896, when he reached an extremely high frequency of up to 60  GHz in his experiments. [13] He also introduced the use of semiconductor junctions to detect radio waves, [14] when he patented the radio crystal detector in 1901. [15] [16]

In 1904, John Ambrose Fleming, the first professor of electrical Engineering at University College London, invented the first radio tube, the diode. Then, in 1906, Robert von Lieben and Lee De Forest independently developed the amplifier tube, called the triode. Electronics is often considered to have begun with the invention of the triode. Within 10 years, the device was used in radio transmitters and receivers as well as systems for long distance telephone calls.

The invention of the triode amplifier, generator, and detector made audio communication by radio practical. (Reginald Fessenden's 1906 transmissions used an electro-mechanical alternator.) In 1912, Edwin H. Armstrong invented the regenerative feedback amplifier and oscillator; he also invented the superheterodyne radio receiver and could be considered the father of modern radio. [17]

The first known radio news program was broadcast 31 August 1920 by station 8MK, the unlicensed predecessor of WWJ (AM) in Detroit, Michigan. Regular wireless broadcasts for entertainment commenced in 1922 from the Marconi Research Centre at Writtle near Chelmsford, England. The station was known as 2MT and was followed by 2LO broadcasting from Strand, London.

While some early radios used some type of amplification through electric current or battery, through the mid-1920s the most common type of receiver was the crystal set. In the 1920s, amplifying vacuum tubes revolutionized both radio receivers and transmitters.

Vacuum tubes remained the preferred amplifying device for 40 years, until researchers working for William Shockley at Bell Labs invented the transistor in 1947. In the following years, transistors made small portable radios, or transistor radios, possible as well as allowing more powerful mainframe computers to be built. Transistors were smaller and required lower voltages than vacuum tubes to work.

Before the invention of the integrated circuit in 1959, electronic circuits were constructed from discrete components that could be manipulated by hand. These non-integrated circuits consumed much space and power, were prone to failure and were limited in speed although they are still common in simple applications. By contrast, integrated circuits packed a large number — often millions — of tiny electrical components, mainly transistors, into a small chip around the size of a coin. [18]

Television

In 1927, Philo Farnsworth made the first public demonstration of a purely electronic television. [19] During the 1930s, several countries began broadcasting, and after World War II it spread to millions of receivers, eventually worldwide. Ever since then, electronics have been fully present in television devices.

Modern televisions and video displays have evolved from bulky electron tube technology to use more compact devices, such as plasma and liquid-crystal displays. The trend is for even lower power devices such as the organic light-emitting diode displays, and it is most likely to replace the LCD and plasma technologies. [20]

Radar and radio location

During World War II, many efforts were expended in the electronic location of enemy targets and aircraft. These included radio beam guidance of bombers, electronic counter measures, early radar systems, etc. During this time, very little if any effort was expended on consumer electronics developments. [21]

Transistors and integrated circuits

John Bardeen, William Shockley and Walter Brattain invented the first working transistor (1947) Bardeen Shockley Brattain 1948.JPG
John Bardeen, William Shockley and Walter Brattain invented the first working transistor (1947)

The first working transistor was a point-contact transistor invented by John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain at the Bell Telephone Laboratories (BTL) in 1947. [22] William Shockley then invented the bipolar junction transistor at BTL in 1948. [23] While early junction transistors were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a mass-production basis, [24] they opened the door for more compact devices. [25]

Mohamed M. Atalla developed the silicon surface passivation process (1957) and invented the MOSFET transistor (1959) Atalla1963.png
Mohamed M. Atalla developed the silicon surface passivation process (1957) and invented the MOSFET transistor (1959)
Robert Noyce invented the monolithic integrated circuit chip (1959) Robert Noyce with Motherboard 1959.png
Robert Noyce invented the monolithic integrated circuit chip (1959)

The first integrated circuits were the hybrid integrated circuit invented by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments in 1958, and the monolithic integrated circuit chip invented by Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1959. [26]


The MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor) was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at BTL in 1959. [27] [28] [29] It was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses. [24] It revolutionized the electronics industry, [7] [8] becoming the most widely used electronic device in the world. [28] [30] [31] The MOSFET is the basic element in most modern electronic equipment. [32] [33]

The MOSFET made it possible to build high-density integrated circuit chips. [28] The earliest experimental MOS IC chip to be fabricated was built by Fred Heiman and Steven Hofstein at RCA Laboratories in 1962. [34] MOS technology enabled Moore's law, the doubling of transistors on an IC chip every two years, predicted by Gordon Moore in 1965. [35] Silicon-gate MOS technology was developed by Federico Faggin at Fairchild in 1968. [36] Since then, the mass-production of silicon MOSFETs and MOS integrated circuit chips, along with continuous MOSFET scaling miniaturization at an exponential pace (as predicted by Moore's law), has led to revolutionary changes in technology, economy, culture, and thinking. [37]

Computers

A computer is a programmable machine that receives input, stores and manipulates data, and provides output in a useful format.

Although mechanical examples of computers have existed through much of recorded human history, the first electronic computers were developed in the mid-20th century (1940–1945). These were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal computers (PCs). Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space. Simple computers are small enough to fit into small pocket devices, and can be powered by a small battery. Personal computers in their various forms are icons of the Information Age and are what most people think of as "computers". However, the embedded computers found in many devices from MP3 players to fighter aircraft and from toys to industrial robots are the most numerous.

The ability to store and execute lists of instructions called programs makes computers extremely versatile, distinguishing them from calculators. The Church–Turing thesis is a mathematical statement of this versatility: any computer with a certain minimum capability is, in principle, capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform. Therefore, computers ranging from a netbook to a supercomputer are all able to perform the same computational tasks, given enough time and storage capacity.

Microprocessors

Federico Faggin designed Intel 4004, first commercially available microprocessor Federico Faggin's Chip Design Revolutionized Computing.jpg
Federico Faggin designed Intel 4004, first commercially available microprocessor

By 1964, MOS chips had reached higher transistor density and lower manufacturing costs than bipolar chips. MOS chips further increased in complexity at a rate predicted by Moore's law, leading to large-scale integration (LSI) with hundreds of transistors on a single MOS chip by the late 1960s. The application of MOS LSI chips to computing was the basis for the first microprocessors, as engineers began recognizing that a complete computer processor could be contained on a single MOS LSI chip. [38]

The first multi-chip microprocessors, the Four-Phase Systems AL1 in 1969 and the Garrett AiResearch MP944 in 1970, were developed with multiple MOS LSI chips. The first single-chip microprocessor was the Intel 4004, released on a single MOS LSI chip in 1971. [39] A single-chip microprocessor was conceived in 1969 by Marcian Hoff. His concept was part of an order by Japanese company Busicom for a desktop programmable electronic calculator, which Hoff wanted to build as cheaply as possible. The first realization of the single-chip microprocessor was the Intel 4004, a 4-bit processor released on a single MOS LSI chip in 1971. It was developed by Federico Faggin, using his silicon-gate MOS technology, along with Intel engineers Hoff and Stan Mazor, and Busicom engineer Masatoshi Shima. [39] This ignited the development of the personal computer. In 1973, the Intel 8080, an 8-bit processor, made possible the building of the first personal computer, the MITS Altair 8800. The first PC was announced to the general public on the cover of the January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics .

Many electronics engineers today specialize in the development and programming of microprocessor-based electronic systems, known as embedded systems. Hybrid specializations such as computer engineering have emerged due to the detailed knowledge of the hardware that is required for working on such systems. [40] Software engineers typically do not study microprocessors, unlike computer and electronics engineers. Engineers who exclusively carry out the role of programming embedded systems or microprocessors are referred to as "embedded systems engineers" or "firmware engineers".

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electrical engineering</span> Branch of engineering

Electrical engineering is an engineering discipline concerned with the study, design, and application of equipment, devices, and systems which use electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism. It emerged as an identifiable occupation in the latter half of the 19th century after the commercialization of the electric telegraph, the telephone, and electrical power generation, distribution, and use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electronics</span> Branch of physics and electrical engineering

Electronics is a scientific and engineering discipline that studies and applies the principles of physics to design, create, and operate devices that manipulate electrons and other electrically charged particles. Electronics is a subfield of electrical engineering, but it differs from it in that it focuses on using active devices such as transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits to control and amplify the flow of electric current and to convert it from one form to another, such as from alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) or from analog to digital. Electronics also encompasses the fields of microelectronics, nanoelectronics, optoelectronics, and quantum electronics, which deal with the fabrication and application of electronic devices at microscopic, nanoscopic, optical, and quantum scales.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Integrated circuit</span> Electronic circuit formed on a small, flat piece of semiconductor material

An integrated circuit, also known as a microchip or IC, is a small electronic device made up of multiple interconnected electronic components such as transistors, resistors, and capacitors. These components are etched onto a small piece of semiconductor material, usually silicon. Integrated circuits are used in a wide range of electronic devices, including computers, smartphones, and televisions, to perform various functions such as processing and storing information. They have greatly impacted the field of electronics by enabling device miniaturization and enhanced functionality.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transistor</span> Solid-state electrically operated switch also used as an amplifier

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electrical signals and power. It is one of the basic building blocks of modern electronics. It is composed of semiconductor material, usually with at least three terminals for connection to an electronic circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals controls the current through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Some transistors are packaged individually, but many more in miniature form are found embedded in integrated circuits. Because transistors are the key active components in practically all modern electronics, many people consider them one of the 20th century's greatest inventions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Very Large Scale Integration</span> Creating an integrated circuit by combining many transistors into a single chip

Very-large-scale integration (VLSI) is the process of creating an integrated circuit (IC) by combining millions or billions of MOS transistors onto a single chip. VLSI began in the 1970s when MOS integrated circuit chips were developed and then widely adopted, enabling complex semiconductor and telecommunication technologies. The microprocessor and memory chips are VLSI devices.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Digital electronics</span> Electronic circuits that utilize digital signals

Digital electronics is a field of electronics involving the study of digital signals and the engineering of devices that use or produce them. This is in contrast to analog electronics which work primarily with analog signals. Despite the name, digital electronics designs includes important analog design considerations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">CMOS</span> Technology for constructing integrated circuits

Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor is a type of metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) fabrication process that uses complementary and symmetrical pairs of p-type and n-type MOSFETs for logic functions. CMOS technology is used for constructing integrated circuit (IC) chips, including microprocessors, microcontrollers, memory chips, and other digital logic circuits. CMOS technology is also used for analog circuits such as image sensors, data converters, RF circuits, and highly integrated transceivers for many types of communication.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fairchild Semiconductor</span> American integrated circuit manufacturer

Fairchild Semiconductor International, Inc. was an American semiconductor company based in San Jose, California. It was founded in 1957 as a division of Fairchild Camera and Instrument by the "traitorous eight" who defected from Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory. It became a pioneer in the manufacturing of transistors and of integrated circuits. Schlumberger bought the firm in 1979 and sold it to National Semiconductor in 1987; Fairchild was spun off as an independent company again in 1997. In September 2016, Fairchild was acquired by ON Semiconductor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of computing hardware (1960s–present)</span> Aspect of history

The history of computing hardware starting at 1960 is marked by the conversion from vacuum tube to solid-state devices such as transistors and then integrated circuit (IC) chips. Around 1953 to 1959, discrete transistors started being considered sufficiently reliable and economical that they made further vacuum tube computers uncompetitive. Metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) large-scale integration (LSI) technology subsequently led to the development of semiconductor memory in the mid-to-late 1960s and then the microprocessor in the early 1970s. This led to primary computer memory moving away from magnetic-core memory devices to solid-state static and dynamic semiconductor memory, which greatly reduced the cost, size, and power consumption of computers. These advances led to the miniaturized personal computer (PC) in the 1970s, starting with home computers and desktop computers, followed by laptops and then mobile computers over the next several decades.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Federico Faggin</span> Italian-American physicist, engineer, inventor and entrepreneur

Federico Faggin is an Italian physicist, engineer, inventor and entrepreneur. He is best known for designing the first commercial microprocessor, the Intel 4004. He led the 4004 (MCS-4) project and the design group during the first five years of Intel's microprocessor effort. Faggin also created, while working at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1968, the self-aligned MOS (metal-oxide-semiconductor) silicon-gate technology (SGT), which made possible MOS semiconductor memory chips, CCD image sensors, and the microprocessor. After the 4004, he led development of the Intel 8008 and 8080, using his SGT methodology for random logic chip design, which was essential to the creation of early Intel microprocessors. He was co-founder and CEO of Zilog, the first company solely dedicated to microprocessors, and led the development of the Zilog Z80 and Z8 processors. He was later the co-founder and CEO of Cygnet Technologies, and then Synaptics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Miniaturization</span> Trend to manufacture ever smaller products and devices

Miniaturization is the trend to manufacture ever-smaller mechanical, optical, and electronic products and devices. Examples include miniaturization of mobile phones, computers and vehicle engine downsizing. In electronics, the exponential scaling and miniaturization of silicon MOSFETs leads to the number of transistors on an integrated circuit chip doubling every two years, an observation known as Moore's law. This leads to MOS integrated circuits such as microprocessors and memory chips being built with increasing transistor density, faster performance, and lower power consumption, enabling the miniaturization of electronic devices.

Semiconductor memory is a digital electronic semiconductor device used for digital data storage, such as computer memory. It typically refers to devices in which data is stored within metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) memory cells on a silicon integrated circuit memory chip. There are numerous different types using different semiconductor technologies. The two main types of random-access memory (RAM) are static RAM (SRAM), which uses several transistors per memory cell, and dynamic RAM (DRAM), which uses a transistor and a MOS capacitor per cell. Non-volatile memory uses floating-gate memory cells, which consist of a single floating-gate transistor per cell.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of electrical engineering</span>

This article details the history of electrical engineering. The first substantial practical use of electricity was electromagnetism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">PMOS logic</span> Family of digital circuits

PMOS or pMOS logic is a family of digital circuits based on p-channel, enhancement mode metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs). In the late 1960s and early 1970s, PMOS logic was the dominant semiconductor technology for large-scale integrated circuits before being superseded by NMOS and CMOS devices.

A transistor is a semiconductor device with at least three terminals for connection to an electric circuit. In the common case, the third terminal controls the flow of current between the other two terminals. This can be used for amplification, as in the case of a radio receiver, or for rapid switching, as in the case of digital circuits. The transistor replaced the vacuum-tube triode, also called a (thermionic) valve, which was much larger in size and used significantly more power to operate. The first transistor was successfully demonstrated on December 23, 1947, at Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey. Bell Labs was the research arm of American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T). The three individuals credited with the invention of the transistor were William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain. The introduction of the transistor is often considered one of the most important inventions in history.

Chih-Tang "Tom" Sah is a Chinese-American electronics engineer and condensed matter physicist. He is best known for inventing CMOS logic with Frank Wanlass at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1963. CMOS is now used in nearly all modern very large-scale integration (VLSI) semiconductor devices.

Automotive electronics are electronic systems used in vehicles, including engine management, ignition, radio, carputers, telematics, in-car entertainment systems, and others. Ignition, engine and transmission electronics are also found in trucks, motorcycles, off-road vehicles, and other internal combustion powered machinery such as forklifts, tractors and excavators. Related elements for control of relevant electrical systems are also found on hybrid vehicles and electric cars.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">FET amplifier</span>

An FET amplifier is an amplifier that uses one or more field-effect transistors (FETs). The most common type of FET amplifier is the MOSFET amplifier, which uses metal–oxide–semiconductor FETs (MOSFETs). The main advantage of a FET used for amplification is that it has very high input impedance and low output impedance.

Dawon Kahng was a Korean-American electrical engineer and inventor, known for his work in solid-state electronics. He is best known for inventing the MOSFET, along with his colleague Mohamed Atalla, in 1959. Kahng and Atalla developed both the PMOS and NMOS processes for MOSFET semiconductor device fabrication. The MOSFET is the most widely used type of transistor, and the basic element in most modern electronic equipment.

References

  1. ↑ Chambers Twentieth Century Dictionary, W & R Chambers, Edinburgh, 1972, page 417, ISBN   055010206X
  2. ↑ Lauer, Henri; Brown, Harry Leonard (1919). Radio Engineering Principles. McGraw-Hill. Retrieved 2012-03-14. radio engineering.
  3. ↑ Erik Barnouw A Tower in Babel, p. 28, Oxford University Press US, 1966 ISBN   978-0195004748
  4. ↑ Department of Defense appropriations for ... - United States. Congress. House. Committee on Appropriations - Google Books. 1949. Retrieved 2012-03-14.
  5. ↑ Daniel Todd The World Electronics Industry, p. 55, Taylor & Francis, 1990 ISBN   978-0415024976
  6. ↑ Walker, Rob; Tersini, Nancy (1992). Silicon Destiny. Walker Research Associates. ISBN   9780963265401 . Retrieved 2012-03-14. IC integrated circuit.
  7. 1 2 Chan, Yi-Jen (1992). Studies of InAIAs/InGaAs and GaInP/GaAs heterostructure FET's for high speed applications. University of Michigan. p. 1. The Si MOSFET has revolutionized the electronics industry and as a result impacts our daily lives in almost every conceivable way.
  8. 1 2 Grant, Duncan Andrew; Gowar, John (1989). Power MOSFETS: theory and applications. Wiley. p. 1. ISBN   9780471828679. The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) is the most commonly used active device in the very large-scale integration of digital integrated circuits (VLSI). During the 1970s these components revolutionized electronic signal processing, control systems and computers.
  9. ↑ Prof. D. E. Hughes' Research in Wireless Telegraphy, The Electrician, Volume 43, 1899, pages 35, 40-41, 93, 143-144, 167, 217, 401, 403, 767
  10. ↑ Massie, W. W., & Underhill, C. R. (1911). Wireless telegraphy and telephony popularly explained. New York: D. Van Nostrand
  11. ↑ Bryan H. Bunch/Alexander Hellemans The History of Science and Technology, p. 436, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2004 ISBN   978-0618221233
  12. ↑ Wireless TelegraphyProceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers pp. 101-5
  13. ↑ "Milestones: First Millimeter-wave Communication Experiments by J.C. Bose, 1894-96". List of IEEE milestones . Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers . Retrieved 1 October 2019.
  14. ↑ Emerson, D. T. (1997). "The work of Jagadis Chandra Bose: 100 years of mm-wave research". 1997 IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium Digest. Vol. 45. pp. 2267–2273. Bibcode:1997imsd.conf..553E. doi:10.1109/MWSYM.1997.602853. ISBN   9780986488511. S2CID   9039614.{{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help) reprinted in Igor Grigorov, Ed., Antentop , Vol. 2, No.3, pp. 87–96.
  15. ↑ "Timeline". The Silicon Engine. Computer History Museum . Retrieved 22 August 2019.
  16. ↑ "1901: Semiconductor Rectifiers Patented as "Cat's Whisker" Detectors". The Silicon Engine. Computer History Museum . Retrieved 23 August 2019.
  17. ↑ Paul J. Nahin The Science of Radio, pp. xxxv-vi, Springer, 2001 ISBN   978-0387951508
  18. ↑ David A. Hodges/Horace G. Jackson/Resve A. Saleh Analysis and Design of Digital Integrated Circuits, p. 2, McGraw-Hill Professional, 2003 ISBN   978-0072283655
  19. ↑ "Philo Taylor Farnsworth (1906-1971)". The Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco. Archived from the original on 2011-06-22. Retrieved 2010-12-20.
  20. ↑ Joseph Shinar Organic Light-Emitting Devices, p. 45, 2003 ISBN   978-0387953434
  21. ↑ Martin L. Van Creveld Technology and War, pp. 267-8, Simon and Schuster, 1991 ISBN   978-0029331538
  22. ↑ "1947: Invention of the Point-Contact Transistor". Computer History Museum . Retrieved 10 August 2019.
  23. ↑ "1948: Conception of the Junction Transistor". The Silicon Engine. Computer History Museum . Retrieved 8 October 2019.
  24. 1 2 Moskowitz, Sanford L. (2016). Advanced Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology in the 21st century. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 165–167. ISBN   9780470508923.
  25. ↑ "Electronics Timeline". Greatest Engineering Achievements of the Twentieth Century. Retrieved 18 January 2006.
  26. ↑ Saxena, Arjun N. (2009). Invention of Integrated Circuits: Untold Important Facts. World Scientific. p. 140. ISBN   9789812814456.
  27. ↑ "1960 - Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated". The Silicon Engine. Computer History Museum.
  28. 1 2 3 "Who Invented the Transistor?". Computer History Museum . 4 December 2013. Retrieved 20 July 2019.
  29. ↑ "Triumph of the MOS Transistor". YouTube . Computer History Museum. 6 August 2010. Retrieved 21 July 2019.
  30. ↑ Golio, Mike; Golio, Janet (2018). RF and Microwave Passive and Active Technologies. CRC Press. pp. 18–2. ISBN   9781420006728.
  31. ↑ "13 Sextillion & Counting: The Long & Winding Road to the Most Frequently Manufactured Human Artifact in History". Computer History Museum . April 2, 2018. Retrieved 28 July 2019.
  32. ↑ Daniels, Lee A. (28 May 1992). "Dr. Dawon Kahng, 61, Inventor In Field of Solid-State Electronics". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 April 2017.
  33. ↑ Colinge, Jean-Pierre; Greer, James C. (2016). Nanowire Transistors: Physics of Devices and Materials in One Dimension. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN   9781107052406.
  34. ↑ "Tortoise of Transistors Wins the Race - CHM Revolution". Computer History Museum . Retrieved 22 July 2019.
  35. ↑ Franco, Jacopo; Kaczer, Ben; Groeseneken, Guido (2013). Reliability of High Mobility SiGe Channel MOSFETs for Future CMOS Applications. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 1–2. ISBN   9789400776630.
  36. ↑ "1968: Silicon Gate Technology Developed for ICs". Computer History Museum . Retrieved 22 July 2019.
  37. ↑ Feldman, Leonard C. (2001). "Introduction". Fundamental Aspects of Silicon Oxidation. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 1–11. ISBN   9783540416821.
  38. ↑ Shirriff, Ken (30 August 2016). "The Surprising Story of the First Microprocessors". IEEE Spectrum . Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. 53 (9): 48–54. doi:10.1109/MSPEC.2016.7551353. S2CID   32003640 . Retrieved 13 October 2019.
  39. 1 2 "1971: Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip". The Silicon Engine. Computer History Museum . Retrieved 22 July 2019.
  40. ↑ "Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Undergraduate Programs" (PDF). UMBC. Retrieved 2015-12-04.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.