History of slavery in Georgia

Last updated

Original caption of 1941 photograph: "Harmony Community, Putnam County, Georgia...This old woman was a slave and belonged to the family on whose place she now lives. She was a small girl when Sherman's army came through." (U.S. Department of Agriculture via NARA) Harmony Community, Putnam County, Georgia.... This old woman was a slave and belonged to the family . . . - NARA - 521368.jpg
Original caption of 1941 photograph: "Harmony Community, Putnam County, Georgia...This old woman was a slave and belonged to the family on whose place she now lives. She was a small girl when Sherman's army came through." (U.S. Department of Agriculture via NARA)

Slavery in Georgia is known to have been practiced by European colonists. During the colonial era, the practice of slavery in Georgia soon became surpassed by industrial-scale plantation slavery.

Contents

The colony of the Province of Georgia under James Oglethorpe banned slavery in 1735, the only one of the thirteen colonies to have done so. However, it was legalized by royal decree in 1751, [1] in part due to George Whitefield's support for the institution of slavery.

Pre-colonial period

Native Americans enslaved members of their own and other tribes before Europeans arrived (and afterwards, continuing into the 1800s); slaves might or might not be adopted eventually, especially if enslaved as children; and the enslavement might or might not be hereditary. [2] [3] Native American slaves included captives from wars and slave raids; captives bartered from other tribes, sometimes at great distances; children sold by their parents during famines; and men and women who staked themselves in gambling when they had nothing else, which put them into servitude in some cases for life. [2] However, there were differences between the styles of slavery. European slavery was specifically focused racism and the concept of racial inferiority, something that had not been documented in Native American societies prior to contact. [3] [4]

Colonial America (1526–1765)

The life of a slave in Colonial America differed greatly depending on the colony, nature of work, the size of the enslaved workforce, temperament, and the power of the enslaver. [3] Additionally there had been a variety of psychological experiences of those that experienced slavery from birth, versus those born free, and differences across the different ethnicities. [3]

The first enslaved Africans in Georgia arrived in 1526 with Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón's establishment of San Miguel de Gualdape on the current Georgia coast, after failing to establish the colony on the Carolina coast. [5] [6] [7] They rebeled and lived with indigenous people, destroying the colony in less than two months. [5] [8]

Two centuries later, Georgia was the last of the Thirteen Colonies to be established and the furthest south (Florida was not one of the Thirteen Colonies). Founded in the 1730s, Georgia's powerful backers did not object to slavery as an institution, but their business model was to rely on labor from Britain (primarily England's poor) and they were also concerned with security, given the closeness of then Spanish Florida, and Spain's regular offers to enemy-slaves to revolt or escape. Despite agitation for slavery, it was not until a defeat of the Spanish by Georgia colonials in the 1740s that arguments for opening the colony to slavery intensified. To staff the rice plantations and settlements, Georgia's proprietors relented in 1751, and African slavery grew quickly. After becoming a royal colony, in the 1760s Georgia began importing slaves directly from Africa. [9]

Federalist Era (1788–1801)

Crawford, Frazer & Co. slave trading business in Atlanta, photographed 1864 Slave Market-Atlanta Georgia 1864.jpg
Crawford, Frazer & Co. slave trading business in Atlanta, photographed 1864
Georgia Slavery Map from 1861 published in Harper's Weekly, December 14, 1961 Harper's Georgia Slavery Map 1861 Cornell CUL PJM 1061 01.jpg
Georgia Slavery Map from 1861 published in Harper's Weekly, December 14, 1961

Birthplace of the cotton gin (1793)

Georgia figures significantly in the history of American slavery because of Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton gin in 1793. The gin was first demonstrated to an audience on Revolutionary War hero General Nathanael Greene's plantation, near Savannah. The cotton gin's invention led to both the burgeoning of cotton as a cash crop and to the revitalization of the agricultural slave labor system in the northern states. The U.S economy soon became dependent upon cotton production and the sale of cotton to northern and English textile manufacturers.

Domestic slave trade

John S. Montmollin, trader of Savannah, to Ziba B. Oakes, trader of Charleston, letter of January 31, 1857, requesting four "Black Boys" ages 18 to 21, large-size ones preferred, field hands preferred, "buy them as cheap as possible" (Boston Public Library Anti-Slavery Collection donated by James Redpath via William Lloyd Garrison) Boston Public Library Anti-Slavery Collection Ms. Am. 322 Box 35 F513.jpg
John S. Montmollin, trader of Savannah, to Ziba B. Oakes, trader of Charleston, letter of January 31, 1857, requesting four "Black Boys" ages 18 to 21, large-size ones preferred, field hands preferred, "buy them as cheap as possible" (Boston Public Library Anti-Slavery Collection donated by James Redpath via William Lloyd Garrison)

Slave markets existed in several Georgia cities, including Atlanta, Augusta, Columbus, Macon, Milledgeville, and above all, in Savannah. [10] In 1859 Savannah was the site of a slave sale colloquially known as the Weeping Time, one of the largest slave sales in the history of the United States. [11] Historian E.A. Pollard wrote in 1858, "Macon, you must know, is one of the principal marts for slaves in the South. Some time ago, I attended on the city's confines an extraordinarily large auction of slaves, including a gang of sixty-one from a plantation in southwestern Georgia. The prices brought were comparatively low, as there was no warranty of soundness, and owing very much, also, to the fact that the slaves were all sold in families." [12] At the beginning of the American Civil War, active traders in Atlanta included Robert M. Clarke, Solomon Cohen, Crawford, Frazer & Co., Fields and Gresham, W. H. Henderson, Inman, Cole & Co., Zachariah A. Rice, A. K. Seago, B. D. Smith, and Whitaker and Turner. [13]

Importing slaves to Georgia was illegal from 1788 until the law was repealed in 1856. [14] Despite these restrictions, researchers estimate that Georgians "transported approximately fifty thousand bonded African Americans" from other slave states between 1820 and 1860. [15] Some of these imports were legal transfers, others were not. Samuel Oakes, the father of a Charleston slave trader named Ziba B. Oakes, was implicated in illegally importing slaves to Georgia in 1844, which resulted in a newspaper notice about the case from Savannah mayor William Thorne Williams that concluded, "The laws of our State are severe, inflicting heavy fines and Penitentiary confinement on such as shall be convicted of these offences Our own safety requires us to be vigilant in preventing the outcasts and convicted felons of other communities from being brought into ours. And all those entrusted with the administration of the laws are bound to use their utmost efforts to bring to just punishment such as shall be guilty of this nature." [16]

Slaves intended for "personal use" could be imported which resulted in a number of workarounds used by traders. [14] One described in the Anti-Slavery Bugle in 1843: "Hamburg, South Carolina was built up just opposite Augusta, for the purpose of furnishing slaves to the planters of Georgia. Augusta is the market to which the planters of Upper and Middle Georgia bring their cotton; and if they want to purchase negroes, they step over into Hamburg and do so. There are two large houses there, with piazzas in front to expose the 'chattels' to the public during the day, and yards in rear of them where they are penned up at night like sheep, so close that they can hardly breathe, with bull-dogs on the outside as sentinels. They sometimes have thousands here for sale, who in consequence of their number suffer most horribly." [17]

Killing of traders Jesse Kirby and John Kirby

Another example of slave importation to Georgia during this period is known from the 1834 killing of "negro traders" Jesse Kirby and John Kirby by enslaved men they were transporting overland to Georgia in a coffle." [18] [19] The Kirbys had been to the slave markets of Baltimore (one enslaved person was purchased at Chestertown) and were traveling with a group of at least nine slaves through Virginia. [20] [18] The Kirbys were killed by enslaved men named George and Littleton at an overnight campsite near Bill's Tavern, [21] around "Prince Edward C. House," near Farmville, Prince Edward County, Virginia, by between two and four enslaved men. [18] Such campsites were apparently typical to the transportation of slaves by overland coffle, as a letter written from Georgia in 1833 described, "During this and other days I have passed by many negro traders, who were crossing to Alabama. These negro traders, in order to save expense, usually carry their own provisions, and encamp out at night. Passing many of these encampments early in the morning, when they were just pitching tents, I have observed groups of negroes hand-cuffed, probably to prevent them from running away. The driver told us, that a thousand negroes had gone on his road to Alabama, the present spring." [22] Slaves working "collectively" to do violence to "cruel owners" was a comparative "rarity" in the history of antebellum violence by the enslaved in Virginia, but "Having left Maryland and their homes behind, [George, Littleton and their allies] likely believed that violence afforded them the last possible opportunity to escape whatever fate awaited them in Georgia. Georgia offered fewer opportunities for escape than Maryland. The movement south threw the slaves lives into flux." [21]

Net slaves entries and exits to Georgia (Tadman 1989 [23] via Slavery State by State) [15]
DecadeChange
1790–1799+6,095
1800–1809+11,231
1810–1819+10,731
1820–1829+18,324
1830–1839+10,403
1840–1849+19,873
1850–1859–7,876

Civil War Era (1850–1865)

Georgia voted to secede from the Union and join the Confederate States of America on January 19, 1861. Years later, in 1865, during his March to the Sea, General William Tecumseh Sherman signed his Special Field Orders, No. 15, distributing some 400,000 acres (1,600 km2) of confiscated land along the Atlantic coast from Charleston, South Carolina, to the St. Johns River in Florida to the slaves freed by the Union Army. Most of the settlers and their descendants are today known as the Gullah.

Slavery was officially abolished by the Thirteenth Amendment, which took effect on December 18, 1865. Slavery had been theoretically abolished by President Abraham Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, which proclaimed that only slaves located in territories that were in rebellion from the United States were free. Since the U.S. government was not in effective control of many of these territories until later in the war, many of these slaves proclaimed to be free by the Emancipation Proclamation were still held in servitude until those areas came back under Union control.

Modern-day slavery

In November 2021, the U.S. Attorney’s Office for the Southern District of Georgia announced an indictment of 24 people following Operation Blooming Onion and alleged a variety of crimes including forced labor, money laundering and mail fraud. The prosecutors described the defendants' actions as "modern-day slavery" and that they forced more than 100 people to work under threat of violence, confiscated their passports and documents, [24] [25] detained them in "work camps surrounded by electric fencing, or held in cramped living quarters, including dirty trailers with raw sewage leaks". [24]

Commemoration

In 2002, the City of Savannah unveiled a bronze statue on River Street, in commemoration of the Africans who were brought to this country as slaves through the city's port. [26] [27] River Street had been an active port for exporting the commodity cotton overseas, African American slaves carried cotton (as well as rice) from the warehouse areas to the boats, and African American slaves laid the cobble stones to create River Street. [28]

In 2005, Wachovia Bank apologized to Georgia's African-American community for its predecessor (Georgia Railroad and Banking Company of Augusta's) role in the use of at least 182 slaves in the construction of the Georgia Railroad. [29]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atlantic slave trade</span> Slave trade – 16th to 19th centuries

The Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade involved the transportation by slave traders of enslaved African people, mainly to the Americas. The outfitted European slave ships of the slave trade regularly used the triangular trade route and its Middle Passage, and existed from the 16th to the 19th centuries. The vast majority of those who were transported in the transatlantic slave trade were from Central and West Africa who had been sold by West African slave traders mainly to Portuguese, British, Spanish, Dutch, and French slave traders, while others had been captured directly by the slave traders in coastal raids; European slave traders gathered and imprisoned the enslaved at forts on the African coast and then brought them to the Americas. Except for the Portuguese, European slave traders generally did not participate in the raids because life expectancy for Europeans in sub-Saharan Africa was less than one year during the period of the slave trade.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slavery in the colonial history of the United States</span> Slavery in colonies that became the United States

Slavery in the colonial history of the United States refers to the institution of slavery as it existed in the European colonies which eventually became part of the United States. In these colonies, slavery developed due to a combination of factors, primarily the labour demands for establishing and maintaining European colonies, which had resulted in the Atlantic slave trade. Slavery existed in every European colony in the Americas during the early modern period, and both Africans and indigenous peoples were victims of enslavement by European colonizers during the era.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slavery in the United States</span>

The legal institution of human chattel slavery, comprising the enslavement primarily of Africans and African Americans, was prevalent in the United States of America from its founding in 1776 until 1865, predominantly in the South. Slavery was established throughout European colonization in the Americas. From 1526, during the early colonial period, it was practiced in what became Britain's colonies, including the Thirteen Colonies that formed the United States. Under the law, an enslaved person was treated as property that could be bought, sold, or given away. Slavery lasted in about half of U.S. states until abolition in 1865, and issues concerning slavery seeped into every aspect of national politics, economics, and social custom. In the decades after the end of Reconstruction in 1877, many of slavery's economic and social functions were continued through segregation, sharecropping, and convict leasing.

The StonoRebellion was a slave revolt that began on 9 September 1739, in the colony of South Carolina. It was the largest enslaved rebellion in the Southern Colonies, with 25 colonists and 35 to 50 Africans killed. The uprising was led by native Africans who were likely from the Central African Kingdom of Kongo, as the rebels were Catholic and some spoke Portuguese.

A plantation economy is an economy based on agricultural mass production, usually of a few commodity crops, grown on large farms worked by laborers or slaves. The properties are called plantations. Plantation economies rely on the export of cash crops as a source of income. Prominent crops included cotton, rubber, sugar cane, tobacco, figs, rice, kapok, sisal, and species in the genus Indigofera, used to produce indigo dye.

<i>Wanderer</i> (slave ship) American vessel, 1858–1871

Wanderer was the penultimate documented ship to bring an illegal cargo of enslaved people from Africa to the United States, landing at Jekyll Island, Georgia, on November 28, 1858. It was the last to carry a large cargo, arriving with some 400 people. Clotilda, which transported 110 people from Dahomey in 1860, is the last known ship to bring enslaved people from Africa to the US.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slave trade in the United States</span>

The internal slave trade in the United States, also known as the domestic slave trade, the Second Middle Passage and the interregional slave trade, was the mercantile trade of enslaved people within the United States. It was most significant after 1808, when the importation of slaves from Africa was prohibited by federal law. Historians estimate that upwards of one million slaves were forcibly relocated from the Upper South, places like Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Missouri, to the territories and then-new states of the Deep South, especially Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Arkansas.

<i>Partus sequitur ventrem</i> Former legal doctrine of slavery by birth

Partus sequitur ventrem was a legal doctrine passed in colonial Virginia in 1662 and other English crown colonies in the Americas which defined the legal status of children born there; the doctrine mandated that children of slave mothers would inherit the legal status of their mothers. As such, children of enslaved women would be born into slavery. The legal doctrine of partus sequitur ventrem was derived from Roman civil law, specifically the portions concerning slavery and personal property (chattels), as well as the common law of personal property.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Female slavery in the United States</span> Overview of female slavery in the United States of America

The institution of slavery in North America existed from the earliest years of the colonial history of the United States until 1865 when the Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery throughout the United States except as punishment for a crime. It was also abolished among the sovereign Indian tribes in Indian Territory by new peace treaties which the US required after the Civil War.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Silver Bluff Baptist Church</span> Historical place

The Silver Bluff Baptist Church was founded between 1774-1775 in Beech Island, South Carolina, by several enslaved African Americans who organized under elder David George.

Seasoning, or the Seasoning, was the period of adjustment that slave traders and slaveholders subjected African slaves to following their arrival in the Americas. While modern scholarship has occasionally applied this term to the brief period of acclimatization undergone by European immigrants to the Americas, it most frequently and formally referred to the process undergone by enslaved people. Slave traders used the term "seasoning" to refer to the process of adjusting the enslaved Africans to the new climate, diet, geography, and ecology of the Americas. The term applied to both the physical acclimatization of the enslaved person to the environment, as well as that person's adjustment to a new social environment, labor regimen, and language. Slave traders and owners believed that if slaves survived this critical period of environmental seasoning, they were less likely to die and the psychological element would make them more easily controlled. This process took place immediately after the arrival of enslaved people during which their mortality rates were particularly high. These "new" or "saltwater" slaves were described as "outlandish" on arrival. Those who survived this process became "seasoned", and typically commanded a higher price in the market. For example, in eighteenth century Brazil, the price differential between "new" and "seasoned" slaves was about fifteen percent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slavery among Native Americans in the United States</span> Native Americans owning, and being, slaves

Slavery among Native Americans in the United States includes slavery by and slavery of Native Americans roughly within what is currently the United States of America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of slavery in Virginia</span> Aspect of history

Slavery in Virginia began with the capture and enslavement of Native Americans during the early days of the English Colony of Virginia and through the late eighteenth century. They primarily worked in tobacco fields. Africans were first brought to colonial Virginia in 1619, when 20 Africans from present-day Angola arrived in Virginia aboard the ship The White Lion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">African Americans in Georgia</span> Largest minority in Georgia and second largest ethnic group in Georgia after White Americans

African-American Georgians are residents of the U.S. state of Georgia who are of African American ancestry. As of the 2010 U.S. Census, African Americans were 31.2% of the state's population. Georgia has the second largest African American population in the United States following Texas. Georgia also has a gullah community. African slaves were brought to Georgia during the slave trade.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indian slave trade in the American Southeast</span>

Native Americans living in the American Southeast were enslaved through warfare and purchased by European colonists in North America throughout the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, as well as held in captivity through Spanish-organized forced labor systems in Florida. Emerging British colonies in Virginia, Carolina, and Georgia imported Native Americans and incorporated them into chattel slavery systems, where they intermixed with slaves of African descent, who would eventually come to outnumber them. The settlers' demand for slaves affected communities as far west as present-day Illinois and the Mississippi River and as far south as the Gulf Coast. European settlers exported tens of thousands of enslaved Native Americans outside the region to New England and the Caribbean.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of slavery in Florida</span>

Slavery in Florida is more central to Florida's history than it is to almost any other state. Florida's purchase by the United States from Spain in 1819 was primarily a measure to strengthen the system of slavery on Southern plantations, by denying potential runaways the formerly safe haven of Florida.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great Slave Auction</span> 1859 record-setting slave auction in the US

The Great Slave Auction was an auction of enslaved Americans of African descent held at Ten Broeck Race Course, near Savannah, Georgia, United States, on March 2 and 3, 1859. Slaveholder and absentee plantation owner Pierce Mease Butler authorized the sale of approximately 436 men, women, children, and infants to be sold over the course of two days. The sale's proceeds went to satisfy Butler's significant debt, much from gambling. The auction was considered the largest single sale of slaves in U.S. history until the 2022 discovery of an even larger auction of 600 slaves in Charleston, South Carolina.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of slavery in South Carolina</span>

Slavery in South Carolina was widespread and systemic even when compared to other slave states. The Fundamental Constitutions of 1669 implied that enslaved people would supplement a largely "'leet-men'" replete workforce. Although African slavery was not mentioned in the “Declarations and Proposals to all that will Plant in Carolina” (1663), which distributed land using the headright system, the Lords Proprietors revised their stance motivated by their own financial stakes and to accommodate the wishes of the Barbadian settlers; these settlers, whom the Lords Proprietors sought to attract to the colony, expressed a desire to bring their enslaved African laborers with them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slave markets and slave jails in the United States</span>

Slave markets and slave jails in the United States were places used for the slave trade in the United States from the founding in 1776 until the total abolition of slavery in 1865. Slave pens, also known as slave jails, were used to temporarily hold enslaved people until they were sold, or to hold fugitive slaves, and sometimes even to "board" slaves while traveling. Slave markets were any place where sellers and buyers gathered to make deals. Some of these buildings had dedicated slave jails, others were negro marts to showcase the slaves offered for sale, and still others were general auction or market houses where a wide variety of business was conducted, of which "negro trading" was just one part.

References

  1. ↑ Marsh, Ben (2007). "Planting families: Intent and outcome in the development of colonial Georgia". History of the Family. 12 (104–115): 104–115. doi:10.1016/j.hisfam.2007.08.003. S2CID   143238377.
  2. 1 2 Lauber, Almon Wheeler (1913). "Enslavement by the Indians Themselves, Chapter 1 in Indian Slavery in Colonial Times Within the Present Limits of the United States". 53 (3). Columbia University: 25–48.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  3. 1 2 3 4 Gallay, Alan (2009). "Introduction: Indian Slavery in Historical Context". In Gallay, Alan (ed.). Indian Slavery in Colonial America. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. pp. 1–32. Archived from the original on 2023-02-06. Retrieved 2017-03-08.
  4. ↑ Thompson, Alvin O. (1976). "Race and Colour Prejudices and the Origin of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade". Caribbean Studies. 16 (3/4): 29–59. ISSN   0008-6533. JSTOR   25612783. Archived from the original on 2021-05-18. Retrieved 2021-05-18.
  5. 1 2 Cameron, Guy, and Stephen Vermette; Vermette, Stephen (2012). "The Role of Extreme Cold in the Failure of the San Miguel de Gualdape Colony". The Georgia Historical Quarterly. 96 (3): 291–307. ISSN   0016-8297. JSTOR   23622193.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ↑ Parker, Susan (August 24, 2019). "'1619 Project' ignores fact that slaves were present in Florida decades before". St. Augustine Record. Archived from the original on 2019-12-26. Retrieved 2019-12-06.
  7. ↑ Francis, J. Michael, Gary Mormino and Rachel Sanderson (August 29, 2019). "Slavery took hold in Florida under the Spanish in the 'forgotten century' of 1492-1619". Tampa Bay Times. Archived from the original on 2019-12-06. Retrieved 2019-12-06.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ↑ Torres-Spelliscy, Ciara; Law, a fellow at the Brennan Center for Justice at NYU School of; Br, the author of "Political; s." (August 23, 2019). "Perspective - Everyone is talking about 1619. But that's not actually when slavery in America started". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2019-12-07. Retrieved 2019-12-06.{{cite news}}: |first3= has generic name (help)
  9. ↑ Wood, Betty; et al. "Slavery in Colonial Georgia". New Georgia Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 2018-07-14. Retrieved 2018-07-14.
  10. ↑ Bancroft, Frederic (2023) [1931, 1996]. Slave Trading in the Old South (Original publisher: J. H. Fürst Co., Baltimore). Southern Classics Series. Introduction by Michael Tadman (Reprint ed.). Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press. p. 222. ISBN   978-1-64336-427-8. LCCN   95020493. OCLC   1153619151.
  11. ↑ DeGraft-Hanson, Kwesi (February 18, 2010). "Unearthing the Weeping Time: Savannah's Ten Broeck Race Course and 1859 Slave Sale". Southern Spaces. 2010. doi: 10.18737/M76K6J . ISSN   1551-2754.
  12. ↑ Pollard, E.A. (1968) [1859]. Black diamonds gathered in the darkey homes of the South (Reprint ed.). New York: Negro Universities Press. hdl:2027/uc1.b4438430 . Retrieved 2023-09-24– via HathiTrust.
  13. ↑ Venet, Wendy Hamand (2014). A Changing Wind: Commerce and Conflict in Civil War Atlanta. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 97. ISBN   978-0-300-19216-2. JSTOR   j.ctt5vksj6. OCLC   879430095.
  14. 1 2 "Slave Laws of Georgia, 1755–1860" (PDF). georgiaarchives.org. Retrieved 2023-07-18.
  15. 1 2 Jewett, Clayton E.; Allen, John O. (2004). Slavery in the South: a state-by-state history. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. pp. 82–83. ISBN   978-0-313-32019-4.
  16. ↑ "Proceedings of the Council, Savannah, Thursday, May 30, 1844". The Charleston Daily Courier. June 4, 1844. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-09-24.
  17. ↑ "Slave Trading in Georgia". Anti-Slavery Bugle. October 27, 1848. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-08-15.
  18. 1 2 3 "Horrid Outrage". The North-Carolina Star. May 15, 1834. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  19. ↑ "Horrid Outrage". The Franklin Repository (Weekly). May 20, 1834. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-09-19.
  20. ↑ "Murder of Negro Traders". The Liberator. May 10, 1834. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-09-19.
  21. 1 2 Bouton, Christopher H. (2016). Against the peace and dignity of the Commonwealth: physical confrontations between slaves and whites in antebellum Virginia, 1801-1860 (Thesis). University of Delaware. ProQuest   10156550. pages viii, 62–64 Lock-green.svg
  22. ↑ "Effects of slavery". The Liberator. September 7, 1833. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  23. ↑ Tadman, Michael (1996) [1989]. Speculators and Slaves: Masters, Traders, and Slaves in the Old South (2nd ed.). University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN   9780299118549. OCLC   34825947.
  24. 1 2 Grinspan, Lautaro (December 3, 2021). "'This has been happening for a long time': Modern-day slavery uncovered in South Georgia". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. ISSN   1539-7459. Archived from the original on 2021-12-09. Retrieved 2021-12-05.
  25. ↑ Ockerman, Emma (November 24, 2021). "Workers Held at Gunpoint in Modern-Day Slavery Operation in Georgia, Feds Allege". Vice. Archived from the original on 2021-12-05. Retrieved 2021-12-05.
  26. ↑ Alderman, Derek H. (January 2010). "Surrogation and the politics of remembering slavery in Savannah, Georgia (USA)". Journal of Historical Geography. 36 (1): 90–101. doi:10.1016/j.jhg.2009.08.001. Archived from the original on 2022-06-18. Retrieved 2021-05-18.
  27. ↑ "Savannah Divided Over Monument". Los Angeles Times. February 10, 2001. Archived from the original on 2020-11-27. Retrieved 2021-05-18.
  28. ↑ "Black History: River Street". WTOC. Gray Media Group, Inc. February 18, 2009. Archived from the original on 2020-11-01. Retrieved 2021-05-18. Africans play a role in the laying out the cobblestones
  29. ↑ Fears, Darryl (June 20, 2005). "Seeking More Than Apologies for Slavery". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2019-11-10. Retrieved 2019-02-24.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.