Kidnapping into slavery in the United States

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Kidnapping into slavery in the United States
Tearing Up Free Papers.jpg
Tearing up the free-born and manumission papers and kidnapping of a free black, in the U.S. free states, to be sold into Southern slavery, from an 1838 abolitionist anti-slavery almanac
Date1780–1865
LocationNorthern United States and Southern United States
Participantsillegal slave trader kidnappers, police, criminals, and captured free blacks
OutcomeThe selling of free negros and forced return of fugitive slaves to Southern slavery, ending with the Union victory at the end of the American Civil War and the passing of the Thirteenth Amendment abolishing slavery and the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution giving them full citizenship rights.
DeathsUnknown

The pre-American Civil War practice of kidnapping into slavery in the United States occurred in both free and slave states, and both fugitive slaves and free negroes were transported to slave markets and sold, often multiple times. There were also rewards for the return of fugitives. Three types of kidnapping methods were employed: physical abduction, inveiglement (kidnapping through trickery) of free blacks, and apprehension of fugitives. [1] [2] The enslavement, or re-enslavement, of free blacks occurred for 85 years, from 1780 to 1865.

Contents

Those who used the term Reverse Underground Railroad were angered at an "underground railroad" helping slaves escape. Rescues of blacks who had been kidnapped were unusual. The name is a reference to the Underground Railroad, the informal network of abolitionists and sympathizers who helped smuggle escaped slaves to freedom, generally in Canada [3] but also in Mexico [4] where slavery had been abolished.

Prevalence

"Kidnapping" (Picture of Slavery in the United States of America by Rev. George Bourne, published by Edwin Hunt in Middletown, Connecticut, 1834) Bourne,+George,+Picture+of+Slavery+in+the+United+States+of+America page 11.jpg
"Kidnapping" (Picture of Slavery in the United States of America by Rev. George Bourne, published by Edwin Hunt in Middletown, Connecticut, 1834)

Free African Americans were often kidnapped from the southernmost free states, along the borders of the slave states of Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri, but kidnapping was also prevalent in states further north, such as New York, Pennsylvania, and Illinois, as well as in abolition-minded regions of some Southern states, such as Tennessee.

New York and Pennsylvania

Free blacks in New York City and Philadelphia were particularly vulnerable to kidnapping. In New York, a gang known as 'the black-birders' regularly waylaid men, women and children, sometimes with the support and participation of policemen and city officials. [5] In Philadelphia, black newspapers frequently ran missing children notices, including one for the 14-year-old daughter of the newspaper's editor. [6] Children were particularly susceptible to kidnapping; in a two-year period, at least a hundred children were abducted in Philadelphia alone. [7]

Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia

"The house of Mr. H. Slatter" would have been Hope H. Slatter's slave jail in Baltimore ("Kidnapping" New Orleans Times-Picayune, February 25, 1841) "Kidnapping" Newspapers.com, The Times-Picayune, February 25, 1841.jpg
"The house of Mr. H. Slatter" would have been Hope H. Slatter's slave jail in Baltimore ("Kidnapping" New Orleans Times-Picayune, February 25, 1841)

From 1811 to 1829, Martha "Patty" Cannon was the leader of a gang that kidnapped slaves and free blacks, from the Delmarva Peninsula of Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and Chesapeake Bay and transported and sold them to plantation owners located further south. She was indicted for four murders in 1829 and died in prison, while awaiting trial, purportedly a suicide via arsenic poisoning.

Illinois

John Hart Crenshaw was a large landowner, salt maker, and slave trader, from the 1820s to the 1850s, based out of the southeastern part of Illinois in Gallatin County and a business associate of Kentucky lawman and outlaw, James Ford. Crenshaw and Ford were allegedly kidnapping free blacks in southeastern Illinois and selling them in the slave state of Kentucky. Although Illinois was a free state, Crenshaw leased the salt works in nearby Equality, Illinois from the U.S. Government, which permitted the use of slaves for the arduous labor of hauling and boiling salt brine water from local salt springs to produce salt. Due to Crenshaw's keeping and "breeding" of slaves and kidnapping of free blacks, who were then pressed into slavery, his house became popularly known as The Old Slave House.

Other cases of the Reverse Underground Railroad in Illinois occurred in the southwestern and western parts of the state, along the Mississippi River bordering the slave state of Missouri. In 1860, John and Nancy Curtis were arrested for trying to kidnap their own freed slaves in Johnson County, Illinois to sell back into slavery in Missouri. [8] Free blacks were also kidnapped in Jersey County, Illinois and taken away to be sold as slaves in Missouri. [9]

Southern states

Black sailors who voyaged to southern states faced the threat of kidnapping. South Carolina passed the Negro Seamen Act in 1822 out of fear that free black sailors would inspire slave revolts, requiring that they be incarcerated while their ship was docked. This could lead to black sailors being sold into slavery if their captains did not pay fees resulting from them being jailed, or if their freedom papers were lost. [10]

In the 1820s–1830s, John A. Murrell led an outlaw gang in western Tennessee. He was once caught with a freed slave living on his property. His tactics were to kidnap slaves from their plantations, promise them their freedom, and instead sell them back to other slave owners. If Murrell was in danger of being caught with kidnapped slaves, he would kill the slaves to escape being arrested with stolen property, which was considered a major crime in the Southern United States. In 1834, Murrell was arrested and sentenced to ten years in the Tennessee State Penitentiary in Nashville for slave-stealing.

In 1839, the governor of South Carolina placed a notice in the newspapers about two seven-year-olds who had been taken from a plantation in the Colleton District by persons unknown; Harry would have been able to tell someone his parents were Prince and Fanny; also the case for Sary, whose parents were Scipio and Diana. [11]

Routes

The opposite of the enslavement of Reverse Underground Railroad was the freedom of the Underground Railroad showing the routes on a map which lead thousands of runaway slaves to liberation in the Northern United States, Canada, and Mexico Undergroundrailroadsmall2.jpg
The opposite of the enslavement of Reverse Underground Railroad was the freedom of the Underground Railroad showing the routes on a map which lead thousands of runaway slaves to liberation in the Northern United States, Canada, and Mexico

The 1827 newspaper The African Observer described how several Philadelphia children were lured on board a small sloop, at anchor in the Delaware River, with the promise of peaches, oranges and watermelons, then immediately put into the hold of the ship in chains, where they took a week long journey by ship. Once landed, they were marched through brushwood, swamp and cornfields to the home of Joe Johnson and Jesse and Patty Cannon, on the line between Delaware and Maryland, where they were "kept in irons for a considerable amount of time". From there, they were again put on board another vessel for a week or more, where one of the children heard someone talking about Chesapeake Bay, in Maryland. Once landed, they were marched again for 'many hundred miles' through Alabama until they reached Rocky Springs, Mississippi.

The same article described a chain of Reverse Underground Railroad posts "established from Pennsylvania to Louisiana". [12]

In the West, kidnappers rode the waters of the Ohio River, stealing slaves in Kentucky and kidnapping free people in Southern Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, who were then transported to the slave states. [13]

A free black sailor named Stephen Dickenson was shanghaiied in New Orleans by his ship captain and a slave trader, who eventually sold Dickenson and a number of other kidnapped African-American sailors at the slave market in Vicksburg, Mississippi. [14]

Travel conditions

Many kidnapped black people were marched to the South on foot. The men were chained together to prevent escape, while the women and children tended to be less restricted. [15]

Prevention and rescue

As early as 1775, Anthony Benezet and others met in Philadelphia and organized the Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully held in Bondage to focus on intervention in the cases of blacks and Indians who claimed to have been illegally enslaved. This group was later reorganized as the biracial Pennsylvania Abolition Society. [16] The Protecting Society of Philadelphia, an auxiliary of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society, [17] was established in 1827 for "the prevention of kidnapping and man-stealing". [18] In January, 1837, The New York Vigilance Committee, established because any free black person was at risk for being kidnapped, reported that it had protected 335 persons from slavery. David A. Ruggles, a black newspaper editor and treasurer of the organization, writes in his paper of his futile attempts to convince two New York judges to prevent illegal kidnapping, as well as a daring successful physical rescue of a young girl named Charity Walker from the New York home of her captors. [19]

State and city governments had difficulty in preventing kidnappings, even before the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. The Pennsylvania Abolition Society compared records of apprehended blacks to try to free those who were wrongfully detained, kept a list of missing people who were potential abductees, and formed the Committee on Kidnapping. However, these efforts proved to be expensive, rendering them unable to work effectively due to their lack of sustainability. [20]

Citizens, particularly free black citizens, were active in lobbying local governments to adopt stronger measures against kidnapping. In 1800, Richard Allen and Absalom Jones sent a petition to Congress from 73 prominent free Black citizens urging a stop to the kidnappings. It was ignored. [21] Due to the lack of effectiveness from government institutions, free blacks were frequently forced to use their own methods to protect themselves and their families. Such methods included keeping proof of their freedom with them at all times and avoiding contact with strangers as well as certain areas. Vigilante groups were also formed to attack kidnappers, including black kidnappers, the latter of whom were universally condemned by the free African-American community. [20]

Jesse Torrey, Jr., depicted recording the narrative of free people who had been kidnapped 1817 Torrey Portraiture of Slavery facing p46 The Author noting down the narrative.jpg
Jesse Torrey, Jr., depicted recording the narrative of free people who had been kidnapped

From Philadelphia, high constable Samuel Parker Garrigues took several trips to Southern states at the behest of mayor Joseph Watson to rescue children and adults who had been kidnapped from the city's streets. He also successfully went after their abductors. One such case was Charles Bailey, kidnapped at fourteen in 1825 and finally rescued by Garrigues after a three-year search. Unfortunately, the beaten and emaciated youth died a few days after being brought back to Philadelphia. Garrigues was able to find and arrest Bailey's abductor, Captain John Smith, alias Thomas Collins, head of "The Johnson Gang". [22] He also tracked down and arrested John Purnell of the Patty Cannon gang. [23] Watson publicized the hunt for the kidnappers in several newspapers, offering a $500 reward. [21] On one occasion, a courageous 15 year old Black boy named Sam Scomp spoke out about his kidnapping during his attempted sale to a white southern planter named John Hamilton. The planter himself contacted Mayor Watson to arrange a rescue of the boy and another kidnapped youth. [21]

Recipients of stolen goods

Slavery in Alabama (1950) recounts two stories illustrating the difficulty of escaping once sold south. In the first, two family members were able to prove they were stolen and legally free in the north, but the Alabama courts simply never addressed the claim, just passing it forward for years. [24] In another case, the buying family had no guilt about owning a legally free person: [24]

Back home in Maryland, Jesse said, he and his family had been free. His father had owned a good home and a small farm on the outskirts of a thrifty village. When Jesse was a stalwart lad of eighteen, he had gone on an errand to the shores of Chesapeake Bay. There slave traders seized him. They carried him to Richmond and sold him on the slave block, paying no attention to his protestations that he was free. He was taken from Richmond to Montgomery and there bought by the Goldthwaites. He had been in that family for fifty years. Jesse had told the Goldthwaites his story, but, although his mistress sympathized with him, neither she nor his master thought there was anything they could do about it—they had bought him in good faith. Rebellion, curbed by stern discipline, had gradually, through the years, given way to despair. Jesse had been, he said, a desperate character until he had come under the influence of Dr. Tichenor. But now that the slaves were free it had occurred to him to try to get in touch again with his family in Maryland. Dr. Tichenor helped him write the letters he suggested, but they were unanswered. Jesse never found again the family from whom he had been stolen. [24]

In 1853, Solomon Northrup published Twelve Years a Slave , a memoir of his kidnapping from New York and twelve years spent as a slave in Louisiana. His book sold 30,000 copies upon release.[ citation needed ] [25] His narrative was made into a 2013 film, which won three Academy Awards. [26]

Abolitionist publications frequently used accounts of people who were kidnapped into slavery for their publications. Notable works that published these accounts include The African Observer, a monthly publication that used firsthand accounts to demonstrate the evils of slavery, as well as Isaac Hopper's Tales of Oppression, a compilation by the abolitionist Isaac Hopper of kidnapping accounts. [12]

Notable illegal slave trader kidnappers and illegal slave breeders

Notable victims

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solomon Northup</span> Free-born African American kidnapped by slave-traders

Solomon Northup was an American abolitionist and the primary author of the memoir Twelve Years a Slave. A free-born African American from New York, he was the son of a freed slave and a free woman of color. A farmer and a professional violinist, Northup had been a landowner in Washington County, New York. In 1841, he was offered a traveling musician's job and went to Washington, D.C. ; there he was drugged and kidnapped into slavery. He was shipped to New Orleans, purchased by a planter, and held as a slave for 12 years in the Red River region of Louisiana, mostly in Avoyelles Parish. He remained a slave until he met Samuel Bass, a Canadian working on his plantation who helped get word to New York, where state law provided aid to free New York citizens who had been kidnapped and sold into slavery. His family and friends enlisted the aid of the Governor of New York, Washington Hunt, and Northup regained his freedom on January 3, 1853.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Underground Railroad</span> Network for fugitive slaves in 19th-century U.S.

The Underground Railroad was a network of secret routes and safe houses established in the United States during the early to mid-19th century. It was used by enslaved African Americans primarily to escape into free states and from there to Canada. The network, primarily the work of free African Americans, was assisted by abolitionists and others sympathetic to the cause of the escapees. The slaves who risked capture and those who aided them are also collectively referred to as the passengers and conductors of the "Underground Railroad". Various other routes led to Mexico, where slavery had been abolished, and to islands in the Caribbean that were not part of the slave trade. An earlier escape route running south toward Florida, then a Spanish possession, existed from the late 17th century until approximately 1790. However, the network generally known as the Underground Railroad began in the late 18th century. It ran north and grew steadily until the Emancipation Proclamation was signed by President Abraham Lincoln. One estimate suggests that, by 1850, approximately 100,000 slaves had escaped to freedom via the network.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fugitive Slave Act of 1850</span> Act of the United States Congress

The Fugitive Slave Act or Fugitive Slave Law was a law passed by the 31st United States Congress on September 18, 1850, as part of the Compromise of 1850 between Southern interests in slavery and Northern Free-Soilers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fugitive Slave Act of 1793</span> Act of the United States Congress

The Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 was an Act of the United States Congress to give effect to the Fugitive Slave Clause of the U.S. Constitution, which was later superseded by the Thirteenth Amendment, and to also give effect to the Extradition Clause. The Constitution’s Fugitive Slave Clause guaranteed a right for a slaveholder to recover an escaped slave. The subsequent Act, "An Act respecting fugitives from justice, and persons escaping from the service of their masters", created the legal mechanism by which that could be accomplished.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fugitive slaves in the United States</span> Aspect of history

In the United States, fugitive slaves or runaway slaves were terms used in the 18th and 19th centuries to describe people who fled slavery. The term also refers to the federal Fugitive Slave Acts of 1793 and 1850. Such people are also called freedom seekers to avoid implying that the enslaved person had committed a crime and that the slaveholder was the injured party.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Patty Cannon</span> American serial killer (c. 1759/1760–1829)

Patty Cannon, whose birth name may have been Lucretia Patricia Hanly, was an illegal slave trader, serial killer, and the co-leader of the Cannon–Johnson Gang of Maryland–Delaware. The group operated for about a decade in the early 19th century and abducted hundreds of free Black people and fugitive slaves, along the Delmarva Peninsula, across multiple state lines to sell into slavery in southern states such as Alabama and Mississippi. The activity became known as the Reverse Underground Railroad.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">James Ford (pirate)</span> American pirate (1775–1833)

James Ford, born James N. Ford, also known as James N. Ford Sr., the "N" possibly for Neal, was an American civic leader and business owner in western Kentucky and southern Illinois, from the late 1790s to mid-1830s. Despite his clean public image as a "Pillar of the Community", Ford was secretly a river pirate and the leader of a gang that was later known as the "Ford's Ferry Gang". His men were the river equivalent of highway robbers. They hijacked flatboats and Ford's "own river ferry" for tradable goods from local farms that were coming down the Ohio River.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crenshaw House (Gallatin County, Illinois)</span> Historic house in Illinois, United States

The Crenshaw House is an historic former residence and alleged haunted house located in Equality Township, Gallatin County, Illinois. The house was constructed in the 1830s. It was the main residence of John Crenshaw, his wife, and their five children.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">John Crenshaw</span> American slave trader (1797–1871)

John Hart Crenshaw was an American landowner, salt maker, kidnapper and slave trader, based out of Gallatin County, Illinois.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">David Ruggles</span> American abolitionist (1810–1849)

David Ruggles was an African-American abolitionist in New York who resisted slavery by his participation in a Committee of Vigilance and the Underground Railroad to help fugitive slaves reach free states. He was a printer in New York City during the 1830s, who also wrote numerous articles, and "was the prototype for black activist journalists of his time." He claimed to have led more than 600 fugitive slaves to freedom in the North, including Frederick Douglass, who became a friend and fellow activist. Ruggles opened the first African-American bookstore in 1834.

<i>Twelve Years a Slave</i> 1853 memoir by Solomon Northup

Twelve Years a Slave is an 1853 memoir and slave narrative by Solomon Northup as told to and written by David Wilson. Northup, a black man who was born free in New York state, details himself being tricked to go to Washington, D.C., where he was kidnapped and sold into slavery in the Deep South. He was in bondage for 12 years in Louisiana before he was able to secretly get information to friends and family in New York, who in turn secured his release with the aid of the state. Northup's account provides extensive details on the slave markets in Washington, D.C., and New Orleans, and describes at length cotton and sugar cultivation and slave treatment on major plantations in Louisiana.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Underground Railroad in Indiana</span>

The Underground Railroad in Indiana was part of a larger, unofficial, and loosely-connected network of groups and individuals who aided and facilitated the escape of runaway slaves from the southern United States. The network in Indiana gradually evolved in the 1830s and 1840s, reached its peak during the 1850s, and continued until slavery was abolished throughout the United States at the end of the American Civil War in 1865. It is not known how many fugitive slaves escaped through Indiana on their journey to Michigan and Canada. An unknown number of Indiana's abolitionists, anti-slavery advocates, and people of color, as well as Quakers and other religious groups illegally operated stations along the network. Some of the network's operatives have been identified, including Levi Coffin, the best-known of Indiana's Underground Railroad leaders. In addition to shelter, network agents provided food, guidance, and, in some cases, transportation to aid the runaways.

William Parker was an American former slave who escaped from Maryland to Pennsylvania, where he became an abolitionist and anti-slavery activist in Christiana. He was a farmer and led a black self-defense organization. He was notable as a principal figure in the Christiana incident, 1851, also known as the Christiana Resistance. Edward Gorsuch, a Maryland slaveowner who owned four slaves who had fled over the state border to Parker's farm, was killed and other white men in the party to capture the fugitives were wounded. The events brought national attention to the challenges of enforcing the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of slavery in Illinois</span> Illinois slavery

Slavery in what became the U.S. state of Illinois existed for more than a century. Illinois did not become a state until 1818, but earlier regional systems of government had already established slavery. France introduced African slavery to the Illinois Country in the early eighteenth century. French and other inhabitants of Illinois continued the practice of owning slaves throughout the Illinois Country's period of British rule (1763–1783), as well as after its transfer to the new United States in 1783 as Illinois County, Virginia. The Northwest Ordinance (1787) banned slavery in Illinois and the rest of the Northwest Territory. Nonetheless, slavery remained a contentious issue, through the period when Illinois was part of the Indiana Territory and the Illinois Territory and some slaves remained in bondage after statehood until their gradual emancipation by the Illinois Supreme Court. Thus the history of slavery in Illinois covers several sometimes overlapping periods: French ; British ; Virginia ; United States Northwest Territory (1787–1800), Indiana Territory (1800–1809), Illinois Territory (1809–1818) and the State of Illinois.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Joseph Watson (mayor)</span> American politician

Joseph Watson was an American merchant and politician. He was the mayor of Philadelphia from 1824 to 1828. Watson was known for his efforts to free free blacks who had been kidnapped in Philadelphia and transported to southern plantations as slaves and in pursuing members of Patty Cannon's gang of kidnappers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Underground Railroad in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania</span>

The Underground Railroad in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania was a critical hub of the American Underground Railroad network, which helped men, women and children to escape the system of chattel slavery that existed in the United States during the nineteenth century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Francis Jackson (kidnapping victim)</span> Slave who worked in Virginia

Francis Jackson, also known as Frank Jackson, was an African-American victim of kidnapping into slavery. He was born free, but enticed into helping to drive horses to Virginia, a slave state, and was sold into slavery in early 1851. Besides escaping a number of times over seven years, there were three legal cases fought in Virginia and North Carolina. It seemed to be settled with the Francis Jackson vs. John W. Deshazer case when he was ruled to be free in 1855, but he was held as a slave until 1858. Jackson lived a continual cycle of being sold to new slaveholders, running away, getting caught, and then being returned to his latest owner.

Samuel Bass (1807–1853) was a white Canadian abolitionist who helped Solomon Northup, author of Twelve Years a Slave, attain his freedom. Northup was a free black man from New York who was kidnapped and forced into slavery in the Deep South. At risk of injury and conviction in default of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, Bass mailed letters to friends of Northup that initiated a series of events to save him.

David Fiske is an author, local historian, and a retired librarian residing in Ballston Spa, New York. He has written several books related to Solomon Northup.

Kentucky raid in Cass County (1847) was conducted by slaveholders and slave catchers who raided Underground Railroad stations in Cass County, Michigan to capture black people and return them to slavery. After unsuccessful attempts, and a lost court case, the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was enacted. Michigan's Personal Liberty Act of 1855 was passed in the state legislature to prevent the capture of formerly enslaved people that would return them to slavery.

References

  1. ↑ Wilson, Carol (1994). Freedom at Risk: The Kidnapping of Free Blacks in America, 1780–1865. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky. pp. 11–16. ISBN   9780813149790.
  2. ↑ Musgrave, Jon. "Black Kidnappings in the Wabash and Ohio Valleys of Illinois, Research Paper for Dr. John Y. Simon's Seminar in Illinois History, Southern Illinois University, April–May 1997". Carbondale, IL.
  3. ↑ Cross, L.D. (2010). The Underground Railroad: The long journey to freedom in Canada. Toronto, ON: James Lorimer Limited, Publishers. ISBN   978-1-55277-581-3.
  4. ↑ Leanos Jr., Reynaldo (2017). "This underground railroad took slaves to freedom in Mexico, PRI's The World, Public Radio International, March 29, 2017". Minneapolis, MN: Public Radio International.
  5. ↑ Manisha Sinha, "The Untold History Beneath 12 Years", The New York Daily News, March 2, 2013
  6. ↑ Frankie Hutton, The Early Black Press in America, 1827 to 1860, Greenwood Publishing, 1993, p. 152
  7. ↑ "Kidnapping in Pennsylvania", Africans in America, PBS
  8. ↑ Lehman, Christopher P. (2011). Slavery in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1787–1865: A History of Human Bondage in Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota and Wisconsin. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland. p. 166. ISBN   9780786485895.
  9. ↑ Hamilton, Oscar Brown (1919). History of Jersey County, Illinois. Munsell Publishing Company. p.  189. kidnapping.
  10. ↑ Blight, David (January 24, 2006). Passages to Freedom. Smithsonian Books. p.  152. ISBN   006085118X.
  11. ↑ "Harry, child of Prince and Fanny & Sary, child of Scipio and Diana, May Bank plantation". Edgefield Advertiser. July 25, 1839. p. 1. Retrieved August 25, 2023.
  12. 1 2 Lewis, Enoch (1827), "Kidnapping", The African Observer, Vol. 1–12, p. 39
  13. ↑ Harold, Stanley (2010), Border War: Fighting Over Slavery Before the Civil War, p. 53, University of North Carolina Press.
  14. ↑ Jewett, Clayton E.; Allen, John O. (2004). Slavery in the South: a state-by-state history. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 161. ISBN   978-0-313-32019-4.
  15. ↑ Collins, Winfield (1904). The Domestic Slave Trade of the Southern States. New York City: Broadway. pp.  101-102.
  16. ↑ "Africans in America/Part 3/Founding of Pennsylvania Abolition Society". PBS. Retrieved March 14, 2021.
  17. ↑ Bacon, Jacqueline (2007). Freedom's Journal: The First African-American Newspaper. Lexington Books. p. 238. ISBN   9780739155202.
  18. ↑ Frankie Hutton (1993), The Early Black Press in America, 1827 to 1860, Greenwood, p. 152.
  19. ↑ Hutton, p. 152
  20. 1 2 Bell, Richard (2018). "Counterfeit Kin: Kidnappers of Color, the Reverse Underground Railroad, and the Origins of Practical Abolition". Journal of the Early Republic. 38 (2): 199–230. doi:10.1353/jer.2018.0025. JSTOR   90021799. S2CID   149993135. Project MUSE   696293 ProQuest   2631911105.
  21. 1 2 3 Smith, Eric Ledell (July 2005). "Rescuing African American Kidnap Victims In Philadelphia as Documented in the Joseph Watston Papers". The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography. 129 (3): 318. JSTOR   20093801.
  22. ↑ Hutton p. 153
  23. ↑ Michael Morgan (2015), Delmarva's Patty Cannon: The Devil on the Nanticoke, Arcadia, p. 3
  24. 1 2 3 Amos Doss, Harriet E.; Sellers, James Benson (2015). Slavery in Alabama. The University of Alabama Press. pp. 157–158. ISBN   978-0-8173-8914-7. Project MUSE   book 36700.
  25. ↑ Northup, Solomon. Twelve Years a Slave. University of North Carolina. Retrieved February 8, 2024.
  26. ↑ Barnes, Brooks; Cieply, Michael (March 3, 2014). "'12 Years' Enjoys a Seemingly Narrow Victory". The New York Times.
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