Indonesia and Japan established diplomatic relations in April 1958. Both are two Asian nations that share historical, economic, and political ties. Both nations went through a difficult period in World War II when the then Dutch East Indies was occupied by the Imperial Japanese Army for three-and-a-half years.[1] Japan is a major trading partner for Indonesia.[2] Japan is Indonesia's largest export partner and also a major donor of development aid to Indonesia through Japan International Cooperation Agency. Indonesia is a vital supplier of natural resources such as liquefied natural gas to Japan. Today in Indonesia, there are about 11,000 Japanese expatriates whereas in Japan, there are approximately 24,000 Indonesian nationals working and training.
Especially in Nagasaki city, during power of Oda Nobunaga Daimyo, Sengoku period 16th century with the banishment of all Catholic missionaries, traders from Catholic countries were also forced out of the country. Along with them, their children, half Japanese and half European, were forced to leave. The majority was sent to Jagatara (Jakarta) and are still remembered by the locals as the people who wrote the poignant letters which were smuggled across the sea to their homeland.
Jagatara Oharu (じ ゃ が た ら 春 Oh, Oharu from Jakarta) or Jeronima Haru Marino (Jeronima Simonsen) (born in Nagasaki, 1625? - died in Batavia, April 1697 at the age of 72) who were driven out of Japan in the early Edo period, and later settled in Batavia, the Dutch East Indies.
In early 17th century Japanese settlers were first recorded to settle in Dutch East Indies. A larger wave came in the 17th century, when Red seal ships traded in Southeast Asia. In 1898 the Dutch East Indies colonial records show 614 Japanese residing in the Dutch East Indies (166 men, 448 women).[5] As the Japanese population grew, a Japanese consulate was established in Batavia in 1909, but for the first several years its population statistics were rather haphazard.[6] Beginning in the late 1920s, Okinawan fishermen began to settle in north Sulawesi. There was a Japanese primary school at Manado, which by 1939 had 18 students.[7] In total, 6,349 Japanese people lived in Indonesia by 1938.[8]
Madjid Usman (1) with members of the consulate at the Japanese Consulate in Batavia in 1932, prior to his studies in Tokyo.
The first Indonesian student to have studied in Japan was revolutionary and Minang politician, Abdoel Madjid Usman at Meiji University studying Law. During his time there, he co-founded the Serikat Indonesia (Indonesian Union), an organization for Indonesian students in Japan, and actively promoted Indonesia's independence in various international forums. He would become a collaborator, an independence advocate, and politician.[9]
In 1942, the Empire of Japan invaded countries in Southeast Asia, including Indonesia. The Japanese seized the key oil production zones of Borneo, Java, Sumatera, and the Netherlands New Guinea (the modern day Indonesian province of Papua, which was also conveniently abundant in highly valuable copper) of the late Dutch East Indies, defeating the Dutch forces and were welcomed by many as liberating heroes by Javanese natives. Many natives saw as the realization of an indigenous Javanese prophecy. The Japanese encouraged the spread of Indonesian nationalist sentiment. Although this was done more for Japanese political advantage than from altruistic support of Indonesian independence, this support created new Indonesian institutions and elevated political leaders such as Sukarno. Through recruiting Indonesian nationalist leaders, the Japanese attempted to rally Indonesian support and mobilize the Indonesian people in support of the Japanese war efforts. The experience of the Japanese occupation of Indonesia varied considerably, depending upon where one's location and social position. Many who lived in areas considered essential to the war effort endured torture, sexual slavery, arbitrary arrest and execution, and other war crimes. Many thousands of people were taken away from Indonesia as forced laborers, or romusha, for Japanese military projects where there was a very high death rate.
To gain military support from Indonesian people in their war against Western Allied force, Japan began to foster the Indonesian nationalistic movement by providing Indonesian youths with military training and weapons, including the formation of a volunteer army called Pembela Tanah Air (PETA; Defenders of the Homeland). The Japanese military training of Indonesian youths originally was intended to rally the local's support to bolster the collapsing power of the Japanese Empire. However, later this military training became a significant asset for the Indonesian Republic during the National Revolution from 1945 to 1949.
In 1945, with the Japanese on the brink of defeat, the Dutch sought to re-establish their authority in Indonesia, and requested the Japanese army "preserve law and order" in Indonesia.[10] Unfortunately for the Dutch, the Japanese favored helping Indonesian nationalists prepare for self-government. On 7 September 1944, as the war was going badly for the Japanese, Prime MinisterKuniaki Koiso promised independence for Indonesia, although the Prime Minister failed to set a date for this independence.[11] On 29 April 1945, Japanese 16th Army force formed the BPUPK (Japanese: Dokuritsu Junbi Chou-sakai), a Japanese-organized committee to work on "preparations for independence in the region of the government of this island of Java".[12] The organization was founded on 29 April 1945, by Lt. Gen. Kumakichi Harada, the commander of 16th Army in Java. It discussed matters related to Indonesian independence, although the later Indonesian Proclamation of Independence on 17 August 1945 was carried out independently by Sukarno and Hatta without the official support of Japan.[13]
Post-Independence era relations
The Embassy of Japan (right) at Jl. Thamrin, Central Jakarta.
After the end of Japanese occupation, roughly 3,000 Imperial Japanese Army soldiers chose to remain in Indonesia and fight alongside local people against the Dutch colonists in the Indonesian National Revolution; roughly one-third were killed, of whom many are buried in the Kalibata Heroes' Cemetery, while another third chose to remain in Indonesia after the fighting ended, some of them becoming decorated as Indonesian independence heroes.[14][15]
After the Indonesian Revolution, Indonesian independence was recognized by the end of 1949. In the mid-1950s, talks between Japan and Indonesia began on war reparations after the San Francisco Agreement was signed, and finalized with the Agreement on Compensation and the opening of diplomatic relations in 1958.[1] The bilateral diplomatic relations between Republic of Indonesia and Japan officially established in April 1958.[2]
In the 1970s, Japanese manufacturers, especially those in the electronics sector, began establishing factories in Indonesia; this encouraged the migration of a new wave of Japanese expatriates, mainly managers and technical staff connected to large Japanese corporations.[16] The Japanese automotive industry also began to dominate Indonesian market and today Japanese car manufacturers enjoys the largest market shares in Indonesia. Simultaneously Japanese consumer products began to pour into Indonesian market.
However the Japanese economic domination over Indonesia has led to the popular opposition that escalated into the Malari incident, (abbreviation of Indonesian: Malapetaka Limabelas Januari or "Fifteen January disaster") when anti-Japanese and anti-foreign investment demonstrations led to riots on 15 January 1974, during Japanese Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka's state visit to Jakarta on 14—17 January 1974.
Japanese investment in Indonesia has steadily increased since the 1980s continued well to 21st century.
Economic relations
In 2012, there were between 1,200 and 1,300 Japanese corporates operating in Indonesia, with some 12,000 Japanese nationals living in Indonesia.[2] Japan has been investing in Indonesia for decades, particularly in the automotive, electronic goods, energy, and mining sectors. Prior to the formation of the Indonesian Republic, the Japanese had viewed Indonesia as an important source of natural resources. The Japanese need of natural resources was among the reasons that led the nation to advance further to the south in their military conquests during World War II. Today Indonesia is Japan's major supplier for natural rubber, liquefied natural gas, coal, minerals, paper pulp, seafood such as shrimp and tuna, and coffee. Traditionally Indonesia has been regarded as a major market of Japanese automotive and electronic goods. For Japanese businesses, Indonesia has been a location for low-cost manufacturing operations as well as being the source of various natural resources required by those operations. Approximately 1,000 Japanese companies operate in Indonesia which employ approximately 300,000 people.[17] Major Japanese factories are concentrated east of Jakarta with high concentrations in Bekasi, Cikarang and Karawang, West Java.
Japanese restaurant chains such as Ootoya, Yoshinoya, Sukiya and Ebisu Curry, fashion, retail and household appliances stores such as Sogo, AEON and MUJI, and bookstores such as Books Kinokuniya have recently entered the market in Indonesia. In 2009, Taisho Pharmaceutical Co. acquired Bristol Myers Indonesia.[18] The investment of these new corporations is encouraged by the success of several Japanese companies. Ajinomoto is planning the construction of a new US$50 million factory in Indonesia.
The trend of bilateral trade volume in 2007-11 period revealed an average increase of 11.97 percent per year, as the bilateral trade figures shows significant increase from US$30.15 billion in 2007 to US$53.15 billion in 2011.[2] Trade between two countries amounted to about $37.44 billion in 2018, ranked Japan as Indonesia's 2nd largest trading partner behind China ($72.67 Billion).[19]
On 20 October 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic, then-Japanese Prime Minister Yoshihide Suga visited Indonesia,[20] and pledged low-interest loans of ¥50 billion ($473 million) to Indonesia in talks with the Southeast Asian nation's President Joko Widodo to help it cope with the economic fallout from the coronavirus pandemic.[21]
Cultural exchange and tourism
JGSDF soldiers distributing aid during its disaster relief activities in the aftermath of the 2004 Aceh Tsunami
There are over 85,000 Indonesians studying the Japanese language, the largest number in Southeast Asia and the sixth largest in the world. The Indonesian interest in the Japanese language has been kindled by the increasing amount of Japanese business in Indonesia since 1980s and the sizable number of Japanese tourists visiting Indonesia. Proficiency in Japanese has become quite an asset for Indonesian students and workers.
In Jakarta, Grand Wijaya Center and Blok M have clusters of businesses catering to Japanese expatriates, including restaurants and supermarkets selling imported food products; Blok M, in particular.[22] As a result of the high number of Japanese–style businesses and entertainments, the area around Blok M and Melawai Raya Street have come to be known as Jakarta's "Little Tokyo".[23]
In 2014, Japanese government abolished visa requirements for Indonesian citizens who possess an ordinary biometric passport in an effort to increase people-to-people exchanges between Japan and Indonesia.[24]
Former Japanese ambassador for Indonesia, Masafumi Ishii, is known for his fondness for several Indonesian cuisines. He frequently posted his eating activities on Instagram, which made him famous in both countries, particularly Indonesia.[25][26]
Despite historical Japanese military aggression against Indonesia, mutual fear of an increasing Chinese threat has spurred the two nations to move relations into the defense sector. In 2021, Japan agreed to transfer weapons to Indonesia.[28] In July 2022, Japan joined the United States and Australia in an Indonesian military exercise focusing on freedom of navigation.[29]
According to a 2011 BBC World Service Poll, 85% of Indonesians view Japan's influence positively, with 7% expressing a negative view, making Indonesia one of the most pro-Japanese countries in the world.[31]
↑ Inomata, Aiko Kurasawa (1997). "Indonesia Merdeka Selekas-lekasnya: Preparations for Independence in the Last Days of Japanese Occupation". In Abdullah, Taufik (ed.). The Heartbeat of Indonesian Revolution. PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama. pp.97–113. ISBN978-979-605-723-8.
Fukihara Yutaka/吹原豊 (2007), エスニックコミュニティの成立と発展一大洗町における定住インドネシア人共同体の事例一[Birth and Development of an Ethnic Community: In the Case of Indonesian Migrant Community in Oarai](PDF), 地域文化研究 (in Japanese), vol.5, pp.21–36, archived from the original(PDF) on 2012-03-19
畠山清行 [Hatakeyama Seikō]; 保阪正康 [Hosaka Masayasu] (2004), 陸軍中野学校終戦秘史[The secret post-war history of the Nakano Infantry School], 新潮社 [Shinchōsha], ISBN978-4-10-115522-7
目黒潮 [Meguro Ushio] (2005), 茨城県大洗町における日系インドネシア人の集住化と就労構造[Establishment of the Nikkei Indonesian Community and their employment system in Oarai Town, Ibaraki](PDF), Intercultural Communication Studies (in Japanese) (17): 49–78, archived from the original(PDF) on 2007-10-28, retrieved 2007-08-11
Murayama, Yoshitada (1993), "The Pattern of Economic Penetration of the Dutch East Indies", in Shiraishi, Saya; Shiraishi, Takashi (eds.), The Japanese in colonial Southeast Asia, Southeast Asian Publications, vol.3, Cornell University, pp.87–110, ISBN978-0-87727-402-5
Shiraishi, Saya; Shiraishi, Takashi, eds. (1993), "The Japanese in Colonial Southeast Asia: An Overview", The Japanese in colonial Southeast Asia, Southeast Asian Publications, vol.3, Cornell University, pp.1–20, ISBN978-0-87727-402-5 .
The history of Indonesia has been shaped by its geographic position, natural resources, a series of human migrations and contacts, wars and conquests, as well as by trade, economics and politics. Indonesia is an archipelagic country of 17,000 to 18,000 islands stretching along the equator in Southeast Asia. The country's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade; trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history. The area of Indonesia is populated by peoples of various migrations, creating a diversity of cultures, ethnicities, and languages. The archipelago's landforms and climate significantly influenced agriculture and trade, and the formation of states. The boundaries of the state of Indonesia match the 20th-century borders of the Dutch East Indies.
The Indonesian National Revolution, also known as the Indonesian War of Independence, was an armed conflict and diplomatic struggle between the Republic of Indonesia and the Dutch Empire and an internal social revolution during postwar and postcolonial Indonesia. It took place between Indonesia's declaration of independence in 1945 and the Netherlands' transfer of sovereignty over the Dutch East Indies to the Republic of the United States of Indonesia at the end of 1949.
Batavia was the capital of the Dutch East Indies. The area corresponds to present-day Jakarta, Indonesia. Batavia can refer to the city proper or its suburbs and hinterland, the Ommelanden, which included the much larger area of the Residency of Batavia in the present-day Indonesian provinces of Jakarta, Banten and West Java.
Hubertus Johannes "Huib" van Mook was a Dutch administrator in the East Indies. During the Indonesian National Revolution, he served as the lieutenant governor-general of the Dutch East Indies from 1942 to 1948. Van Mook also had a son named Cornelius van Mook who studied marine engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He also wrote about Java - and his work on Kota Gede is a good example of a colonial bureaucrat capable of examining and writing about local folklore.
The Republic of Indonesia, a country located in Southeast Asia has three time zones. Western Indonesia Time is seven hours ahead (UTC+07:00) of the Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), used in the islands of Sumatra, Java, and the western half of Kalimantan. Central Indonesia Time is eight hours ahead (UTC+08:00), used in the eastern half of Kalimantan, as well as all of Bali, the Lesser Sunda Islands, and Sulawesi. Eastern Indonesia Time is nine hours ahead (UTC+09:00), used in the Maluku Islands and Western New Guinea.
The Japanese Empire occupied the Dutch East Indies during World War II from March 1942 until after the end of the war in September 1945.
Jakarta is Indonesia's capital and largest city. Located on an estuary of the Ciliwung River, on the northwestern part of Java, the area has long sustained human settlement. Historical evidence from Jakarta dates back to the 4th century CE, when it was a Hindu settlement and port. The city has been sequentially claimed by the Indianized kingdom of Tarumanegara, the Hindu Kingdom of Sunda, the Muslim Sultanate of Banten, and by Dutch, Japanese and Indonesian administrations. The Dutch East Indies built up the area before it was taken during World War II by the Empire of Japan and finally became independent as part of Indonesia.
Agriculture in Indonesia is one of the key sectors within the Indonesian economy. In the last 50 years, the sector's share in national gross domestic product has decreased considerably, due to the rise of industrialisation and service sector. Nevertheless, for the majority of Indonesian households, farming and plantation remains as a vital income generator. In 2013, the agricultural sector contributed 14.43% to national GDP, a slight decline from 2003's contribution which was 15.19%. In 2012, the agricultural sector provides jobs to approximately 49 million Indonesians, representing 41% of the country's total labor force.
China and Indonesia established formal diplomatic relations in 1949, more commonly referred to as Sino-Indonesian relations. Prior to this, for many centuries, the two countries maintained a variety of relations mainly in informal trade. Under Sukarno’s presidency, from 1945 to 1967, relations with China deepened, as in the early 1960s Sukarno embarked on a series of aggressive foreign policies under the rubric of anti-imperialism and personally championed the Non-Aligned Movement. These developments led to increasing friction with the West and closer relations both with China and the USSR.
The Dutch East Indies, also known as the Netherlands East Indies, was a Dutch colony with territory mostly comprising the modern state of Indonesia, which declared independence on 17 August 1945. Following the Indonesian War of Independence, Indonesia and the Netherlands made peace in 1949. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824, the Dutch ceded the governorate of Dutch Malacca to Britain, leading to its eventual incorporation into Malacca (state) of modern Malaysia.
Large-scale Japanese migration to Indonesia dates back to the late 19th century, though there was limited trade contact between Japan and Indonesia as early as the 17th century. As of October 2009, there were about 11,263 Japanese expatriates in Indonesia. At the same time, there are also identifiable populations of descendants of early migrants, who may be referred to as Nikkei Indonesians or Indonesian Nikkei.
Indonesia and the United Kingdom established diplomatic relations in 1949 and have maintained strong relations since then. Indonesia has an embassy in London while the United Kingdom has an embassy in Jakarta. The United Kingdom considers Indonesia an increasingly important partner globally and is committed to efforts to take bilateral relations to new heights. Both nations are members of G-20 major economies.
The capital of Indonesia, officially the capital of the Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia, is Jakarta, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Southeast Asia. However, since the enactment of the Special Region of Jakarta Act, Jakarta has lost its de jure status as capital of Indonesia, and is currently in a transitional period due to the relocation of the capital to Nusantara.
Indonesia and Thailand have officially established diplomatic ties on 7 March 1950. The two countries have since enjoyed a cordial bilateral relationship. Both countries have established embassies in each capitals, Indonesia has their embassy in Bangkok and a consulate in Songkhla, while Thailand has their embassy in Jakarta and honorary consulates in Denpasar, Medan and Surabaya. High rank stately visits has been conducted for years. Both nations are the founders of ASEAN and members of numerous organizations such as the Non-Aligned Movement, APEC, Cairns Group, G20 developing nations and the Indian-Ocean Rim Association. Indonesia and Thailand are viewed as natural allies. Indonesia is also appointed as observer in Cambodian–Thai border dispute.
Indonesia–Philippines relations are the bilateral relations between Indonesia and the Philippines. The two countries established diplomatic relations on November 24, 1949. Since then, both countries enjoy a cordial bilateral relationship in the spirit of kinship. The two countries are considered allies, and their relationship is often seen as one of the most important bilateral relationships in ASEAN. Both countries have established embassies in each other’s capital city. Indonesia has an embassy in Manila and consulate in Davao City, while the Philippines has an embassy in Jakarta and a consulate in Manado. High-level state visits have been conducted between the two countries for years.
Indonesia–Taiwan relations are foreign relations between Indonesia and Taiwan. Currently, Indonesia does not officially recognize Republic of China (Taiwan) as it adopted One-China Policy; officially recognizing only the People’s Republic of China since 1950. Despite geopolitical constraints, the relations between two countries remain flourished over times, the opportunities for widening and deepening the relations have grown.
The Consulate-General of Japan, Surabaya is a Japanese diplomatic mission to Indonesia in Surabaya, East Java. The first Japanese diplomatic mission in Surabaya was established on 13 March 1920 while the city was under rule of the Dutch East Indies. In 1979, the consulate upgraded its status to Consulate-General. The General-Consulate in Surabaya leads the Japanese diplomatic mission in the 4 provinces and 8 provinces with the consulate office (branch) in Makassar. The consulate-general is located at Jalan Sumatera No.93, Gubeng, Surabaya. Takeyama Kenichi is the current consul general in Surabaya.
Shigetada Nishijima (西嶋重忠) was a Japanese scholar, former spy and lobbyist. He was active in Indonesia before, during and after the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies, and became a major figure on the Japanese side of the Indonesian National Revolution. Between the 1950s and the 1960s, he was a lobbyist and an intermediary, linking Japanese and Indonesian interests. Later on, he became a scholar of and published memoirs of his time in Indonesia.
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