Israeli occupation of the Gaza Strip

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Map of the Gaza Strip in May 2005, a few months prior to the Israeli withdrawal. The major settlement blocs were the blue-shaded regions of this map. Gaza strip may 2005.jpg
Map of the Gaza Strip in May 2005, a few months prior to the Israeli withdrawal. The major settlement blocs were the blue-shaded regions of this map.

In 1956, the Gaza Strip came under military occupation by Israel for a period of four months. Israel captured it again on 6 June 1967. After Israel unilaterally withdrew from the Gaza Strip in 2005, there was a period of turmoil followed by Hamas governance beginning in 2007. The United Nations, international human rights organizations, [1] International Court of Justice, European Union, International Criminal Court, some of the international community and some legal academics and experts regard the Gaza Strip to still be under military occupation by Israel, as Israel still maintains direct control over Gaza's air and maritime space, six of Gaza's seven land crossings, a no-go buffer zone within the territory, and the Palestinian population registry. [2] [3] Israel, the United States, and other legal, [4] military, and foreign policy experts otherwise contend that Israel "ceded the effective control needed under the legal definition of occupation" upon its disengagement in 2005. [3] Israel continues to maintain a blockade of the Gaza Strip, limiting the movement of goods and people in and out of the Gaza Strip.

Contents

History

1956–1957 Israeli four-month occupation

Egypt's All-Palestine Protectorate was established by the Arab League during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. After the war, the Gaza Strip was the only former-Mandate territory under the jurisdiction of the All-Palestine Government. [5]

In 1956, Egypt blockaded the Gulf of Aqaba, assumed national control of the Suez Canal, and blocked it to Israeli shipping—both threatening the young State of Israel and violating the Convention of Constantinople of 1888. [6] Israel, France and the United Kingdom invaded the Gaza Strip and Sinai Peninsula, initiating the 1956 Suez War. Under international pressure, the Anglo-French Task Force withdrew before the end of 1956. The Israeli army withdrew in March 1957, ending Israel's four-month-long occupation of the Sinai and Gaza Strip. [7] [8]

During this period, American-Israeli photographer Moshe Marlin Levin documented life there in color photographs that highlight the lively commerce, cleanliness and positive reception of the Israeli presence. [9]

1967–1994 Israeli Military-Civil Administration

In 1967, after Egypt blockaded the Straits of Tiran and cut off Israeli shipping, Israel attacked Egypt, initiating the Six-Day War. It quickly defeated the surrounding Arab states and occupied the Gaza Strip, along with the West Bank and other territory, ending Egypt's occupation. The Israeli Military Governorate was a military governance system established following the Six-Day War in June 1967, in order to govern the civilian population of the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, the Sinai Peninsula and the western part of Golan Heights. The governance was based on the Fourth Geneva Convention, which provides guidelines for military rule in occupied areas. During this period, the UN and many sources referred to the military governed areas as Occupied Arab Territories. [10]

The Egypt–Israel peace treaty led Israel to give up the Sinai Peninsula in 1982 and transform the military rule in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank into the Israeli Civil Administration in 1981, which was run by the Israeli Ministry of Defense. The creation of a civil administration for the West Bank and Gaza Strip was included within the Camp David Accords signed by Egypt and Israel in 1978. [11]

1994–2005 Israeli settlements continuation

2005 Israeli disengagement from Gaza

While the disengagement of Israel from Gaza was first proposed in 2003 by Prime Minister Ariel Sharon, and adopted by the government and Knesset in 2004 and 2005, the actual unilateral dismantlement of the settlements occurred in 2005. [12] [13] The decision to disengage from Gaza was not met with support from the Israeli public, with a May 2004 referendum showing that 65% of voters were against the disengagement plan. [14]

2005–2007

Israel withdrew from Gaza in September 2005. Control of the Gaza–Egypt border was on the Egyptian side handed over to Egypt. The Fatah-dominated PA had been given control on the Gazan side at the Rafah Border Crossing. The 2005 Philadelphi Accord between Israel and Egypt turned over control of the border to Egypt. [15] From February 2005, a technocrat Fatah-led PA government controlled the Palestinian National Security Forces. [16] From November 2005 until June 2007, the Rafah Crossing was jointly controlled by Egypt and the Palestinian Authority, with the European Union monitoring the activities from 24 November 2005 on the Gazan side. [17] Tensions between Fatah and Hamas intensified after Hamas won the elections of 2006. [18] Hamas formed its Executive Force with Jamal abu Samhadana, a prominent militant, at its head. Abbas [19] and Fatah commanders refused to take orders from the Hamas-led Palestinian Authority government. [20] [21] [22] [23] The Fatah-backed President Abbas was supported by the international community and more or less tolerated by Israel. The Hamas-dominated Palestinian Authority and the parliament were boycotted, and international financial aid was rendered via Abbas. [22]

In December 2006, Abbas called for new parliamentary and presidential elections. [24] Hamas characterized it as an attempted Fatah coup by Abbas and violence broke out. [25] [20] [26] [27] [28] [29] Abbas's means of enforcing order appeared to be coercive action by police and security units under his command, which were relatively weak in the Gaza Strip, Hamas's stronghold. [29] In February 2007, the Saudi-brokered Fatah–Hamas Mecca Agreement produced an agreement on a Palestinian national unity government [30] which was short-lived. [31] In June 2007, Hamas took control [32] and removed Fatah officials. [33] Human Rights Watch accused both sides with violations of international humanitarian law including the targeting and killing of civilians, public executions of political opponents and captives, throwing prisoners off high-rise apartment buildings, fighting in hospitals, and shooting from a jeep marked with "TV" insignias. [34] The ICRC denounced attacks in and around two hospitals in the northern part of the Gaza strip. [35] The Israeli government closed all check-points on the borders of Gaza in response to the violence. Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas announced the dissolution of the unity government. [36] [37] Sami Abu Zuhri asserted that Palestinian Prime Minister Ismail Haniyeh remained the head of the government. [38] [39] Neither Hamas nor Fatah had enough votes to form a new government under the constitution. [40] [41]

2007–2023

Hamas has governed the Gaza Strip in Palestine since its takeover of the territory from the rival Fatah-ruled Palestinian Authority (PA) on 14 June 2007. [42] [43] [44] The Hamas administration was first led by Ismail Haniyeh from June 2007 until February 2017; then by Yahya Sinwar until his killing in October 2024; and since then by Mohammed Sinwar. [45]

2023–present Gaza war

Current military situation in the Gaza Strip: .mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{} Gaza Strip under Palestinian control Gaza Strip under Israeli control Claimed furthest Israeli advance in Gaza Evacuated areas inside Israel Maximum extent of the 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel Area of Gaza subject to Israeli evacuation orders October 2023 Gaza-Israel conflict.svg
Current military situation in the Gaza Strip:
   Gaza Strip under Palestinian control
  Gaza Strip under Israeli control
  Claimed furthest Israeli advance in Gaza
  Evacuated areas inside Israel
  Maximum extent of the 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel
  Area of Gaza subject to Israeli evacuation orders

On October 7, 2023, Hamas and its allies invaded Israel, killing 1,195 people and taking around 250 hostages, mostly civilians. In response, Israel launched an invasion of the Gaza Strip. [46]

In early January 2024, during the Gaza war, Israel reoccupied most of the northern Gaza Strip after Israel claimed that it had dismantled 12 Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades battalions on 7 January. [47] [48] [49] This led to the beginning of the Insurgency in the North Gaza Strip and also the beginning of the Israeli reoccupation of the Gaza Strip, some 19 years after Israel had disengaged from the Gaza Strip in 2005 due to stiff resistance from the Palestinians. However, Israel has been continuously imposing a blockade of the Gaza Strip since 2007.[ citation needed ]

At the beginning of the Gaza war, Israel made it clear that controlling the Gaza Strip was one of the main goals. [50] In late January 2024, Benjamin Netanyahu said that he "will not compromise on full Israeli control" over Gaza. [51]

In March 2024, Israel started carving through farmland and demolishing Palestinian homes and schools in the Gaza Strip to create a new buffer zone. Palestinians would be barred from the new buffer zone in Gaza. [52]

Following the killing of Yahya Sinwar, the Hamas temporary committee initially discussed the possibility of appointing a single successor, but eventually opted to rule through the committee until the scheduled Hamas leadership elections in March 2025. [53] [54] [55] In January 2025, a United States–brokered ceasefire went into effect, with Hamas retaining control over the Gaza Strip as the IDF withdrew. [45] [56] [57] [58]

In early April 2025, it was announced by Israeli Defense Minister Israel Katz that there would be a major expansion of Israel security zones, where large swaths of land were seized by the IDF. Katz also announced that there would be an ordered evacuation of Gaza's population from the areas, although heavy airstrikes in the area have already caused the deaths of multiple civilians including children. [59]

Israeli settlements

By 2005, there were 9,000 Israeli settlers spread across 21 Israeli settlements in the Gaza Strip, while around 1.3 million Palestinians lived there. The first settlement was built in 1970, soon after Israel occupied the Gaza Strip following the Six-Day War. Each Israeli settler disposed of 400 times the land available to the Palestinian refugees, and 20 times the volume of water allowed to the peasant farmers of the Strip. [60] Following disengagement from the Gaza Strip in 2005, all Israeli settlers were evacuated and all settlements were dismantled. [61]

In late January 2024, it was reported by an unnamed Israeli military officer that Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and others in the government had requested that military members begin to establish permanent bases in the Gaza Strip amid the 2023 Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip [62] following the October 7 Hamas-led attacks on Israel.

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Palmer Report Did Not Find Gaza Blockade Legal, Despite Media Headlines". Amnesty International USA. 6 September 2011.
  2. ↑ Sanger, Andrew (2011). "The Contemporary Law of Blockade and the Gaza Freedom Flotilla". In M.N. Schmitt; Louise Arimatsu; Tim McCormack (eds.). Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law - 2010. Vol. 13. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 429. doi:10.1007/978-90-6704-811-8_14. ISBN   978-90-6704-811-8. Israel claims it no longer occupies the Gaza Strip, maintaining that it is neither a State nor a territory occupied or controlled by Israel, but rather it has 'sui generis' status. Pursuant to the Disengagement Plan, Israel dismantled all military institutions and settlements in Gaza and there is no longer a permanent Israeli military or civilian presence in the territory. However, the Plan also provided that Israel will guard and monitor the external land perimeter of the Gaza Strip, will continue to maintain exclusive authority in Gaza air space, and will continue to exercise security activity in the sea off the coast of the Gaza Strip as well as maintaining an Israeli military presence on the Egyptian-Gaza border, and reserving the right to reenter Gaza at will. Israel continues to control six of Gaza's seven land crossings, its maritime borders and airspace and the movement of goods and persons in and out of the territory. Egypt controls one of Gaza's land crossings. Gaza is also dependent on Israel for water, electricity, telecommunications and other utilities, currency, issuing IDs, and permits to enter and leave the territory. Israel also has sole control of the Palestinian Population Registry through which the Israeli Army regulates who is classified as a Palestinian and who is a Gazan or West Banker. Since 2000 aside from a limited number of exceptions Israel has refused to add people to the Palestinian Population Registry. It is this direct external control over Gaza and indirect control over life within Gaza that has led the United Nations, the UN General Assembly, the UN Fact Finding Mission to Gaza, International human rights organisations, US Government websites, the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office and a significant number of legal commentators, to reject the argument that Gaza is no longer occupied.
    • Kmiotek, Celeste (October 29, 2024). "Israel claims it is no longer occupying the Gaza Strip. What does international law say?". Atlantic Council .
    • Scobbie, Iain (2012). Elizabeth Wilmshurst (ed.). International Law and the Classification of Conflicts. Oxford University Press. p. 295. ISBN   978-0-19-965775-9. Even after the accession to power of Hamas, Israel's claim that it no longer occupies Gaza has not been accepted by UN bodies, most States, nor the majority of academic commentators because of its exclusive control of its border with Gaza and crossing points including the effective control it exerted over the Rafah crossing until at least May 2011, its control of Gaza's maritime zones and airspace which constitute what Aronson terms the 'security envelope' around Gaza, as well as its ability to intervene forcibly at will in Gaza.
    • Gawerc, Michelle (2012). Prefiguring Peace: Israeli-Palestinian Peacebuilding Partnerships. Lexington Books. p. 44. ISBN   9780739166109. While Israel withdrew from the immediate territory, it remained in control of all access to and from Gaza through the border crossings, as well as through the coastline and the airspace. In addition, Gaza was dependent upon Israel for water, electricity sewage communication networks and for its trade (Gisha 2007. Dowty 2008). In other words, while Israel maintained that its occupation of Gaza ended with its unilateral disengagement Palestinians – as well as many human rights organizations and international bodies – argued that Gaza was by all intents and purposes still occupied.
  3. 1 2 Dagres, Holly (2023-10-31). "Israel claims it is no longer occupying the Gaza Strip. What does international law say?". Atlantic Council. Retrieved 2024-04-25.
  4. ↑ Cuyckens, Hanne (2016-10-01). "Is Israel Still an Occupying Power in Gaza?" (PDF). Netherlands International Law Review. 63 (3): 275–295. doi: 10.1007/s40802-016-0070-1 . ISSN   1741-6191 . Retrieved 2025-05-11.
  5. ↑ Shlaim, Avi (1990). "The rise and fall of the All-Palestine Government in Gaza". Journal of Palestine Studies. 20: 37–53. doi:10.1525/jps.1990.20.1.00p0044q.
  6. ↑ Sachar, Howard Morley (1996). A History of Israel: From the Rise of Zionism to Our Time. A.A. Knopf. p. 455. ISBN   978-0-679-76563-9 . Retrieved 2025-05-12.
  7. ↑ Pierre, Major Jean-Marc (15 August 2014). 1956 Suez Crisis And The United Nations. Tannenberg Publishing. ISBN   978-1-7828-9608-1.
  8. ↑ Golani, Motti (1995). "The Historical Place of the Czech-Egyptian Arms Deal, Fall 1955". Middle Eastern Studies. 31 (4): 803–827. doi:10.1080/00263209508701081. ISSN   0026-3206. JSTOR   4283762.
  9. ↑ Do these photos taken in 1956 show a peaceful Gaza under Israeli occupation
  10. ↑ Meguid, Ahmed Esmat Abdel (1973). "Israeli Practices and Human Rights In Occupied Arab Territories" (PDF). The International Lawyer. 7 (2): 279–288. JSTOR   40704776.
  11. ↑ Schmidt, Yvonne (2001). Foundations of Civil and Political Rights in Israel and the Occupied Territories. GRIN Verlag. p. 348. ISBN   978-3-638-94450-2.[ self-published source ]
  12. ↑ Sara M. Roy (2016). The Gaza Strip. Institute for Palestine Studies USA, Incorporated. pp. xxiii. ISBN   978-0-88728-321-5.
  13. ↑ "Knesset Approves Disengagement Implementation Law (February 2005)". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org.
  14. ↑ "40 Years Of Israeli Occupation". www.arij.org. Retrieved 2024-06-24.
  15. ↑ A New Reality on the Egypt-Gaza Border (Part I): Contents of the New Israel-Egypt Agreement Archived November 18, 2015, at the Wayback Machine . Brooke Neuman, Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 19 September 2005
  16. ↑ Current Palestinian Government Structure (Factsheet) Archived November 18, 2015, at the Wayback Machine . MIFTAH, 3 December 2005
  17. ↑ FAQs Archived November 18, 2015, at the Wayback Machine . EU BAM Rafah. Accessed September 2015
  18. ↑ Alone and Broke, Hamas Struggles to Rule Archived July 26, 2016, at the Wayback Machine . New York Times, 7 April 2006
  19. ↑ Kalman, Matthew (December 14, 2006). "U.S. training Fatah in anti-terror tactics / Underlying motive is to counter strength of Hamas, analysts say". sfgate. Archived from the original on December 3, 2013.
  20. 1 2 "Hamas coup in Gaza" Archived October 15, 2008, at the Wayback Machine . International Institute for Strategic Studies, Volume 13, Issue 5; June 2007
  21. ↑ The Impact of Semi-Presidentialism on Governance in the Palestinian Authority (pdf) Archived October 23, 2015, at the Wayback Machine , pp. 6, 9, 10-11, 16-17. Francesco Cavatorta and Robert Elgie. Parliam Affairs (2009). (Also in HTML version) Archived October 23, 2015, at the Wayback Machine p. 6: "the PA has a president-parliamentary form of semi-presidentialism"; p. 9: "The Basic Law of the Palestinian Authority is the equivalent of an interim constitution"; p. 11: ", the semi-presidential structures of the 2003 amended Basic Law highlighted and accelerated divisions between Hamas and Fatah ... Hamas offered Fatah a grand coalition, but Fatah refused"; p. 17: "The semi-presidential structure of the 2003 amended Basic Law was the source of this destabilising period of competition within the executive ... The creation of two competing centres of power with equal popular legitimacy raised the political stakes within the system as both actors tried to undermine the position of other."
  22. 1 2 Tonje Merete Viken (Spring 2008). "Struggles for Power and Unity - Constitutional Designs in the Palestinian Authority" (PDF). palestinianbasiclaw.org. University of Oslo. pp. 4, 78–80. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 4, 2016.
  23. ↑ TIMELINE: Key events since 2006 Archived September 30, 2015, at the Wayback Machine . Reuters, 20 June 2007
  24. ↑ Abbas calls for early Palestinian poll. Reuters, 16 December 2006
  25. ↑ Hamas accuses Abbas of launching coup. David Hardaker, 17 December 2006
  26. ↑ Abbas decides to call early elections Archived October 6, 2015, at the Wayback Machine . Jerusalem Post, 16 December 2006
  27. ↑ Palestinian tensions run high after poll call Archived October 12, 2017, at the Wayback Machine . Reuters, 17 December 2006
  28. ↑ Fatah and Hamas agree ceasefire [ dead link ]. Eric Silver, Independent, 18 December 2006. On Google's cache
  29. 1 2 Abbas outlaws Hamas's paramilitary Executive Force Archived January 17, 2007, at the Wayback Machine . Richard Boudreaux, The Boston Globe/Los Angeles Times, 7 January 2007
  30. ↑ The Palestinian National Unity Government Archived August 14, 2011, at the Wayback Machine . Shlomo Brom, Canada Free Press, 24 February 2007
  31. ↑ "Palestinian interior minister submits resignation" Archived July 24, 2016, at the Wayback Machine , Guardian, 23 April 2007
  32. ↑ "How Hamas took over the Gaza Strip". BBC News. June 15, 2007. Archived from the original on September 27, 2009. Retrieved January 4, 2010.
  33. ↑ Gaza-Westbank – ICRC Bulletin No. 22 / 2007 Archived November 16, 2007, at the Wayback Machine , AlertNet. Retrieved June 16, 2007.
  34. ↑ Gaza: Armed Palestinian Groups Commit Grave Crimes Archived June 15, 2007, at the Wayback Machine , Human Rights Watch, June 13, 2007.
  35. ↑ Hospitals offer no safety in Gaza strip Archived June 17, 2007, at the Wayback Machine , ABC News, June 13, 2007.
  36. ↑ "Abbas Dissolves Palestinian Authority Government in Wake of Hamas-Fatah War". Fox News. June 14, 2007. Archived from the original on June 16, 2007. Retrieved July 14, 2008.
  37. ↑ Levinson, Charles; Matthew Moore (June 14, 2007). "Abbas declares state of emergency in Gaza". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on June 18, 2007. Retrieved June 14, 2007.
  38. ↑ "Abbas sacks Hamas-led government". BBC News. June 14, 2007. Archived from the original on July 14, 2007. Retrieved July 14, 2008.
  39. ↑ Black, Ian; Tran, Mark (June 15, 2007). "Hamas takes control of Gaza". Guardian. London. Archived from the original on August 31, 2013. Retrieved June 3, 2010.
  40. ↑ What Can Abu Mazin Do? Archived October 8, 2012, at the Wayback Machine , pp. 8-9, section States of Emergency under the Palestinian Basic Law. Nathan J. Brown, The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 15 June 2007. Here Available Archived October 4, 2015, at the Wayback Machine . "First, the PLC can overturn any action taken (presumably by a simple majority, though...Hamas may have difficulties mustering votes with so many deputies in jail). Second, any extension of the state of emergency beyond thirty days requires PLC approval—and this time it is Abu Mazin who would have trouble mustering the votes, since he would need 2/3 of all PLC members."
  41. ↑ "No Alternative to Political Dialogue: PCHR's Position towards the Current Crisis in the Gaza Strip and the Palestinian National Authority". Palestinian Centre for Human Rights. June 18, 2007. Archived from the original on June 27, 2007. Retrieved June 19, 2007.
  42. ↑ "Hamas' Gaza chief begins regional tour, to meet Ahmadinejad, Gulf leaders". Al Arabiya News. 30 January 2012. Archived from the original on 1 April 2012. Retrieved 6 August 2014.
  43. ↑ Avnery, Uri (14 April 2011). "Israel Must Recognize Hamas' Government in Gaza". Haaretz.com. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
  44. ↑ "Hamas delivers free meals to Gaza's poor". aljazeera.com. Archived from the original on 2019-10-19. Retrieved 2011-12-20.
  45. 1 2 "A defiant Hamas displays its authority in Gaza, posing a challenge to Netanyahu". NBC News. 2025-01-28. Retrieved 2025-01-29.
  46. ↑ "Has Israel invaded Gaza? The military has been vague, even if its objectives are clear". Associated Press . 31 October 2023. Archived from the original on 1 November 2023. Retrieved 2 November 2023.
  47. ↑ Jhaveri, Ashka; Soltani, Amin; Moore, Johanna; Tyson, Kathryn; Braverman, Alexandra; Carl, Nicholas (7 January 2024). "Iran Update, January 7, 2024". Institute for the Study of War. Retrieved 22 March 2024.
  48. ↑ Clarke, Colin P. (5 February 2024). "The Counterinsurgency Trap in Gaza". Foreign Affairs . 103 (2). Council on Foreign Relations. ISSN   2327-7793. OCLC   863038729 . Retrieved 22 March 2024.
  49. ↑ Rasgon, Adam; Boxerman, Aaron (23 February 2024). "As Gaza War Grinds On, Israel Prepares for a Prolonged Conflict". The New York Times . Retrieved 22 March 2024.
  50. ↑ "Netanyahu says IDF will control Gaza after war, rejects notion of international force". The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 12 November 2023. Retrieved 13 November 2023.
  51. ↑ "Netanyahu Says No Compromise on Full Israeli Control in Gaza". Voice of America . January 20, 2024.
  52. ↑ Bressange, Camille; Nissenbaum, Dion; Gómez, Juanje; AbdulKarim, Fatima. "How Israel's Proposed Buffer Zone Reshapes the Gaza Strip". WSJ .
  53. ↑ "Hamas to be temporarily led by five-member ruling committee". The Arab Weekly. 22 October 2024.
  54. ↑ "Hamas will be temporarily led by a committee, according to sources within the movement". L'Orient Today. 22 October 2024.
  55. ↑ "Who will lead Hamas after killing of Yahya Sinwar?". BBC News. 2024-10-19. Retrieved 2024-10-27.
  56. ↑ Abdel-Baqui, Omar; Said, Summer (2025-01-21). "Hamas Is Effectively Back in Control in Gaza". WSJ. Retrieved 2025-01-29.
  57. ↑ Rasgon, Adam; Abuheweila, Iyad (2025-01-23). "Hamas Takes Charge in Gaza After 15 Months of War". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 2025-01-29.
  58. ↑ "Hamas' tight grip on Gaza complicates plan for lasting peace". Reuters. Archived from the original on 2025-01-22. Retrieved 2025-01-29.
  59. ↑ Yosef, Eugenia; Khadder, Kareem; Nasser, Irene (2025-04-02). "Israel announces expansion of military operation in Gaza to seize 'large areas' of land, ordering residents to leave". CNN. Retrieved 2025-04-02.
  60. ↑ Filiu, Jean-Pierre (2014-08-14). Gaza: A History. Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-020190-6.
  61. ↑ "Israel's disengagement from Gaza (2005) | Withdrawal, Map, & Hamas | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2024-04-11.
  62. ↑ Kemal, Levent (24 January 2024). "Israel planning 'permanent army stations' in Gaza". Middle East Eye. Retrieved 2024-03-20.
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