Kimmeridge Clay

Last updated

Kimmeridge Clay
Stratigraphic range: Kimmeridgian–Berriasian
Beach and cliffs, Egmont Bight - geograph.org.uk - 900296.jpg
Grey cliffs of Upper Kimmeridge Clay above the beach at Egmont Bight
Type Geological formation
Unit of Ancholme Group (onshore), Humber Group (offshore)
Sub-unitsBirch Sandstone Member
Burns Sandstone Member
Claymore Sandstone Member
Dirk Sandstone Member
Magnus Sandstone Member
Ptarmigan Sandstone Member
Ribble Sandstone Member
Underlies Portland Sand Formation, Speeton Clay Formation, Spilsby Sandstone
Overlies Ampthill Clay, Corallian Group
Lithology
Primary Mudstone
Other Siltstone, Sandstone, Conglomerate
Location
Region England (surface)
North Sea (subsurface)
Country United Kingdom
Type section
Named for Kimmeridge Bay
LocationType section - North Sea well 47/15- 1 at 885-919 m depth
Type area - coastal outcrops from Black Head, Weymouth to Chapman's Pool

The Kimmeridge Clay is a sedimentary deposit of fossiliferous marine clay which is of Late Jurassic to lowermost Cretaceous age and occurs in southern and eastern England and in the North Sea. [1] This rock formation is the major source rock for North Sea oil. The fossil fauna of the Kimmeridge Clay includes turtles, crocodiles, sauropods, plesiosaurs, pliosaurs and ichthyosaurs, as well as a number of invertebrate species.

Contents

Description

Kimmeridge Clay is named after the village of Kimmeridge on the Dorset coast of England, where it is well exposed and forms part of the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site. [2] Onshore, it is of Late Jurassic (Kimmeridgian) age and outcrops across England, in a band stretching from Dorset in the south-west, north-east to North Yorkshire. Offshore, it extends into the Lower Cretaceous (Berriasian Stage) and it is found throughout the Southern, Central and Northern North Sea. [1]

The foundations of the Humber Bridge on the southern (Barton) side of the bridge are on Kimmeridge Clay beneath superficial deposits, under the Humber estuary. [3]

Economic importance

Kimmeridge Clay is of great economic importance, [2] being the major source rock for oil fields in the North Sea hydrocarbon province. [4] It has distinctive physical properties and log responses. [5]

Vertebrate fauna

Color key
Taxon Reclassified taxonTaxon falsely reported as presentDubious taxon or junior synonym Ichnotaxon Ootaxon Morphotaxon
Notes
Uncertain or tentative taxa are in small text; crossed out taxa are discredited.

Fauna uncovered from the Kimmeridge Clay include: [6]

Ray-finned fish

Ray-finned fishes of the Kimmeridge clay Formation
GenusSpeciesLocationStratigraphic PositionAbundanceNotesImages

Thrissops [7] [8]

Indeterminate

Dorset

Most common Kimmeridge clay fish, known from several complete specimens

Housed at the etches collection, discovered by Steve Etches

Complete specimen Thrissops KC.jpg
Complete specimen

Pachythrissops

Indeterminate

Dorset

Housed at the etches collection, discovered by Steve Etches

Allothrissops

Indeterminate

Dorset

Housed at the etches collection, discovered by Steve Etches

Chondrostei

Indeterminate

Dorset

One specimen, a fin

Housed at the etches collection, discovered by Steve Etches

Lepidotes

Indeterminate

Dorset

Housed at the etches collection, discovered by Steve Etches

Gyrodus

Indeterminate

Dorset

Housed at the etches collection, discovered by Steve Etches

Caturus

Indeterminate

Dorset

Housed at the etches collection, discovered by Steve Etches

Caturus furcatus Caturus furcatus 337.jpg
Caturus furcatus

Aspidorhynchus

Indeterminate

Dorset

Housed at the etches collection, discovered by Steve Etches

Hypsocormus

H.tenuirostris

Dorset

Rare

Housed at the etches collection, discovered by Steve Etches

Pachycormus

Indeterminate

Dorset

Rare

Housed at the etches collection, discovered by Steve Etches

Eurycormus

Indeterminate

Dorset

Rare, one complete specimen

Housed at the etches collection, discovered by Steve Etches

Leptolepidae

Indeterminate

Dorset

Fairly common, multiple near complete specimens.

Housed at the etches collection, discovered by Steve Etches

Lobe-finned fish

Lobe-finned fishes of the Kimmeridge clay Formation
GenusSpeciesLocationStratigraphic PositionAbundanceNotesImages

Holophagus

Indeterminate

Dorset

One specimen, cranial material

Coelacanth. Housed at the etches collection, discovered by Steve Etches. More than 2 metres long

Cartilaginous fish

Cartilaginous fishes of the Kimmeridge clay Formation
GenusSpeciesLocationStratigraphic PositionAbundanceNotesImages

Asteracanthus

Indeterminate

Dorset

Known from many dorsal spines

Housed at the etches collection, discovered by Steve Etches

Chimaera

Indeterminate

Known from many dorsal spines

Housed at the etches collection, discovered by Steve Etches

Hybodus

Indeterminate

Known from many dorsal spines, perhaps a complete head

Housed at the etches collection, discovered by Steve Etches

Ischyodus

Indeterminate

One specimen

Housed at the etches collection, discovered by Steve Etches

Rhinobatidae

Indeterminate

Known from a complete specimen, and other isolated remains

Housed at the etches collection, discovered by Steve Etches

Kimmerobatis [9]

K. etchesi

Known from multiple partial skeletons

A spathobatid ray
Durnonovariaodus [10] D. maiseyiPectinatites pectinatus ammonite zoneOne partial skeletonA hybodontid

Turtles

Turtles of the Kimmeridge clay Formation
GenusSpeciesLocationStratigraphic PositionAbundanceNotesImages
Craspedochelys C. passmoreiSwindon"NHMUK R5871 (holotype), subcomplete shell with associated postcranial remains, including parts of the girdles, the left humerus, and partial cervical vertebrae" [11] Thalassochelydian sea turtle
Achelonia A. formosaEly, Cambridgeshire"CAMSM J29898 to CAMSM J29955 (holotype), a partial, disarticulated skeleton" [11] Thalassochelydian sea turtle, formerly considered the distinct species "Enaliochelyschelonia" [12]
Pelobatochelys P. blakiiWeymouthCarapace fragments Thalassochelydian sea turtle
Plesiochelys [13] P. etalloni"basicranium with partial otic chambers and fragment of the right maxilla" Thalassochelydian sea turtle
Thalassemys T. bruntrutana, T. hugiiIsle of Purbeck (bruntrutana), Abingdon, Oxfordshire (hugii)"A partial carapace and associated limb and girdle elements (NHMUK R8699)" (Purbeck) "A large shell (OUMNH J.66966)" (Oxfordshire) [13] Thalassochelydian sea turtle
Tropidemys [13] P. langiiWeymouth"NHMUK OR44178b, an isolated neural; NHMUK OR45920, right costals 1–3; NHMUK OR45921, a left first costal; NHMUK R2733, a left fourth costal" Thalassochelydian sea turtle

Archosaurs

Thalattosuchians

GenusSpeciesLocationMemberAbundanceNotesImages

Bathysuchus

B. megarhinus

A pelagic teleosaurid. [14]

Cricosaurus Enaliosuchus BW.jpg
Cricosaurus
Dakosaurus Dakosaurus, Cricosaurus, and ichthyosaurs by durbed.jpg
Dakosaurus
Plesiosuchus Plesiosuchus restoration.png
Plesiosuchus
Torvoneustes Torvoneustes carpenteri.jpg
Torvoneustes

Cricosaurus

C. gracilis

A metriorhynchine metriorhynchid

Dakosaurus

D. maximus

A geosaurine metriorhynchid

Metriorhynchus

M. brevirostris

A metriorhynchine metriorhynchid

Plesiosuchus

P. manseli

A geosaurine metriorhynchid

Torvoneustes [15] [16]

T. carpenteri [15]

A geosaurine metriorhynchid

T. coryphaeus [17]

A geosaurine metriorhynchid

Ornithischians

Indeterminate ankylosaur osteoderms have been found in Wiltshire, England. [18] Indeterminate stegosaurid remains have been found in Dorset and Wiltshire, England. [6]

GenusSpeciesLocationMemberAbundanceNotesImages

Cumnoria [6]

C. prestwichii [6]

  • Oxfordshire [6]

"Fragmentary skull and skeleton." [19]

Iguanodontian
Cumnoria Cumnoria NT.jpg
Cumnoria
Dacentrurus Dacentrurus armatus.png
Dacentrurus

Dacentrurus [6]

D. armatus [6]

vertebrae, a massive right femur (thigh bone), ribs and a near complete pelvis.

Stegosaur. Wiltshire remains include specimens previously referred to Omosaurus armatus and O. hastiger. [6]

Ornithopoda

Indeterminate [6]

Kimmeridge clay remains considered to represent a possible close relative of Bugenasaura [20] are now regarded as the remains of an indeterminate euornithopod. [6] (The specimen may have had its locality and horizon mislabelled.)

Omosaurus [6]

O.armatus [6]

Reclassified as Dacentrurus armatus because the generic name Omosaurus was preoccupied. [6]

O. hastiger [6]

Saurischians

Indeterminate ornithomimmid remains have been found in Dorset, England. [6] An undescribed theropod genus was found in Dorset. [6]

GenusSpeciesLocationStratigraphic positionMaterialNotesImages

Bothriospondylus [6]

B. suffosus [6]

"[Seven] dorsal and sacral centra." [21]

Considered a nomen dubium.
Juratyrant Juratyrant signed.jpg
Juratyrant

Cetiosaurus [6]

C. humerocristatus [6]

Now Duriatitan . [22]

Indeterminate [6]

  • Oxfordshire [6]

Remains previously referred to an indeterminate species of Cetiosaurus are now regarded as indeterminate sauropod material. [6]

Duriatitan

D. humerocristatus

Humerus [23]

A titanosauriform [22]

Gigantosaurus [6]

G. megalonyx [6]

  • Cambridgeshire [6]

Remains previously referred to Gigantosaurus megalonyx are now regarded as indeterminate sauropod material. [6]

" Ischyrosaurus " [6]

I. manseli [6]

  • Oxfordshire [6]

"Humerus." [24]

Remains previously referred to Ischyrosaurus manseli are now regarded as indeterminate sauropod material. [6]

Juratyrant [25] [26]

J. langhami

  • Dorset

Partial skeleton

A primitive tyrannosaur

Torvosaurus [27] IndeterminateSwindon, DorsetTibia (OUMNH J.29886) and maxilla fragment, collected separatelyA megalosaurid

Theropoda [6]

Indeterminate

A tooth from Foxhangers, Wiltshire (NHMUK 46388), phalanges from an unspecified locality in Wiltshire (DZSWS 3009), and a proximal caudal verte-

bra from Shotover, Oxfordshire (OUMNH J.47134). [27]

Remains previously referred to Megalosaurus are now regarded as indeterminate theropod material. [6]

Sauropoda [6]

Indeterminate [6]

  • Oxfordshire [6]
  • Cambridgeshire [6]
  • Norfolk [6]

Remains previously attributed to one or more indeterminate species of Ornithopsis (incl. O. leedsii) are now regarded as possible indeterminate sauropod material. [6]

Pterosaurs

GenusSpecieslocationMaterialNotesImages
Cuspicephalus [28] C. scarfi

Dorset

Partial SkullMissing Crest, lower jaw and dentition
Cuspicephalus Cuspicephalus NT.jpg
Cuspicephalus
Rhamphorhynchus Rhamphorhynchus DB.jpg
Rhamphorhynchus

Rhamphorhynchus

R.etchesi

Dorset

Germanodactylus

indeterminate

Dorset

Plesiosaurs

GenusSpeciesLocationMemberAbundanceNotesImages

Bathyspondylus

B. swindoniensis

Plesiosaur of unknown affinities

Kimmerosaurus Kimmerosaurus.png
Kimmerosaurus
Pliosaurus brachydeirus PliosaurusDB12.jpg
Pliosaurus brachydeirus

Colymbosaurus

C. megadeirus

A cryptoclidid

C. trochantericus

Nomen dubium

Kimmerosaurus

K. langhami

A cryptoclidid

Plesiosaurus

"P." manseli

Distinct from Colymbosaurus. [29]

Pliosaurus [30] [31]

P. brachydeirus

A thalassophonean pliosaurid

P. brachyspondylus [30]

Nomen dubium

P. carpenteri

A thalassophonean pliosaurid

P. kevani

A thalassophonean pliosaurid

P. portentificus [32]

A nomen dubium

P. ?rossicus

A thalassophonean pliosaurid; taxonomic identification of specimens tentative [30]

P. westburyensis

A thalassophonean pliosaurid

P. sp. 1

Partial skeleton, CAMSM J.35991

A thalassophonean pliosaurid; previously assigned to the nomen dubiumP. brachyspondylus [30] [31]

P. sp. 2

Mandible, NHMUK PV OR 39362

A thalassophonean pliosaurid; previously assigned to the nomen dubiumP. macromerus [30] [31]

Spitrasaurus

Indeterminate

Ichthyosaurs

GenusSpeciesLocationStratigraphic PositionAbundanceNotesImages

Brachypterygius

B.extremus

Dorset

Brachypterygius Brachypterygius NT small.jpg
Brachypterygius
Grendelius Otshevia2DB.jpg
Grendelius
Nannopterygius Yasikovia2.jpg
Nannopterygius
Thalassodraco Thalassodraco holotype.jpg
Thalassodraco
Ophthalmosaurus Ophthalmosaurus BW.jpg
Ophthalmosaurus

Grendelius

G.mordax

Dorset

Ichthyosauridae

Indeterminate

Dorset

Giant, near complete specimen. Proposed to have been 6 metres long when complete. Housed at the Etches collection in dorset.

Macropterygius

M.trigonus

Dorset

Nomen dubium - classified by a single vertebra

Nannopterygius

N.enthekiodon

Dorset

Thalassodraco

T. etchesi

Dorset

The Pectinatites pectinatus ammonite zone

Ophthalmosaurus

Indeterminate

Dorset

Invertebrates

An aptychus with the name Trigonellites latus, from the Kimmeridge Clay Formation Trigonellites latus.jpg
An aptychus with the name Trigonellites latus, from the Kimmeridge Clay Formation

The invertebrate fauna of the Kimmeridge Clay includes: [33] [34]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carnosauria</span> Extinct group of theropod dinosaurs

Carnosauria is a large, extinct group of predatory dinosaurs that lived during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. Starting from the 1990s, scientists have discovered some very large carnosaurs in the carcharodontosaurid family, such as Giganotosaurus, Mapusaurus, Carcharodontosaurus and Tyrannotitan which are among the largest known predatory dinosaurs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oxford Clay</span> Jurassic rock formation in southeast England

The Oxford Clay is a Jurassic marine sedimentary rock formation underlying much of southeast England, from as far west as Dorset and as far north as Yorkshire. The Oxford Clay Formation dates to the Jurassic, specifically, the Callovian and Oxfordian ages, and comprises two main facies. The lower facies comprises the Peterborough Member, a fossiliferous organic-rich mudstone. This facies and its rocks are commonly known as lower Oxford Clay. The upper facies comprises the middle Oxford Clay, the Stewartby Member, and the upper Oxford Clay, the Weymouth Member. The upper facies is a fossil poor assemblage of calcareous mudstones.

<i>Chilantaisaurus</i> Theropod dinosaur genus from the Late Cretaceous period

Chilantaisaurus is a genus of large theropod dinosaur, possibly a neovenatorid or a primitive coelurosaur, from the Late Cretaceous Ulansuhai Formation of China. The type species, C. tashuikouensis, was described by Hu in 1964.

<i>Stokesosaurus</i> Extinct genus of dinosaurs

Stokesosaurus is a genus of small, carnivorous early tyrannosauroid theropod dinosaurs from the late Jurassic period of Utah, United States.

<i>Dryptosaurus</i> Extinct genus of dinosaurs

Dryptosaurus is a genus of basal eotyrannosaurian theropod dinosaur that lived on the island continent of Appalachia approximately 67 million years ago during the end of the Maastrichtian age of the Late Cretaceous period. Dryptosaurus was a large, bipedal, ground-dwelling carnivore that could grow up to 7.5 metres (25 ft) long and weigh up to 756–1,500 kilograms (1,667–3,307 lb). Although it is now largely unknown outside of academic circles, the famous 1897 painting of the genus by Charles R. Knight made Dryptosaurus one of the more widely known dinosaurs of its time, in spite of its poor fossil record. First described by Edward Drinker Cope in 1866 and later renamed by Othniel Charles Marsh in 1877, Dryptosaurus is among the very first theropod dinosaurs ever known to science.

Chuandongocoelurus is a genus of carnivorous tetanuran theropod dinosaur from the Jurassic of China.

<i>Kelmayisaurus</i> Extinct genus of dinosaurs

Kelmayisaurus is an extinct genus of carcharodontosaurid theropod dinosaur from the Early Cretaceous. It was roughly 10–12 meters long and its name refers to the petroleum-producing city of Karamay in the Xinjiang province of western China near where it was found.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kirtland Formation</span> Geological formation in New Mexico and Colorado, United States

The Kirtland Formation is a sedimentary geological formation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wealden Group</span> Stratigraphic Group in England

The Wealden Group, occasionally also referred to as the Wealden Supergroup, is a group in the lithostratigraphy of southern England. The Wealden group consists of paralic to continental (freshwater) facies sedimentary rocks of Berriasian to Aptian age and thus forms part of the English Lower Cretaceous. It is composed of alternating sands and clays. The sandy units were deposited in a flood plain of braided rivers, the clays mostly in a lagoonal coastal plain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lourinhã Formation</span> Late Jurassic geological formation in Portugal

The Lourinhã Formation is a fossil rich geological formation in western Portugal, named for the municipality of Lourinhã. The formation is mostly Late Jurassic in age (Kimmeridgian/Tithonian), with the top of the formation extending into the earliest Cretaceous (Berriasian). It is notable for containing a fauna especially similar to that of the Morrison Formation in the United States and a lesser extent to the Tendaguru Formation in Tanzania. There are also similarities to the nearby Villar del Arzobispo Formation and Alcobaça Formation. The stratigraphy of the formation and the basin in general is complex and controversial, with the constituent member beds belonging to the formation varying between different authors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eumeralla Formation</span> Geological formation in Victoria, Australia

The Eumeralla Formation is a geological formation in Victoria, Australia whose strata date back to the Early Cretaceous. It is Aptian to Albian in age. Dinosaur remains are among the fossils that have been recovered from the formation, particularly from the Dinosaur Cove locality.

The Moreno Hill Formation is a geological formation in western New Mexico whose strata were deposited in the Late Cretaceous. Dinosaur remains are among the fossils that have been recovered from the formation. The age of the formation is dated between approximately 90.9 to 88.6 million years ago based on detrital zircons.

<i>Juratyrant</i> Extinct genus of dinosaurs

Juratyrant is a tyrannosauroid dinosaur genus from the late Jurassic period of England. The genus contains a single species, Juratyrant langhami, which was once classed as a species of Stokesosaurus.

The year 2013 in Archosaur paleontology was eventful. Archosaurs include the only living dinosaur group — birds — and the reptile crocodilians, plus all extinct dinosaurs, extinct crocodilian relatives, and pterosaurs. Archosaur palaeontology is the scientific study of those animals, especially as they existed before the Holocene Epoch began about 10,000 years ago. The year 2013 in paleontology included various significant developments regarding archosaurs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Charmouth Mudstone Formation</span> Geological formation in England

The Charmouth Mudstone Formation is a geological formation in England, dating to the Early Jurassic (Sinemurian–Pliensbachian). It forms part of the lower Lias Group. It is most prominently exposed at its type locality in cliff section between Lyme Regis and Charmouth but onshore it extends northwards to Market Weighton, Yorkshire, and in the subsurface of the East Midlands Shelf and Wessex Basin. The formation is notable for its fossils, including those of ammonites and marine reptiles and rare dinosaur remains. The formation played a prominent role in the history of early paleontology, with its Lyme Regis-Charmouth exposure being frequented by fossil collectors including Mary Anning.

The year 2010 in Archosaur paleontology was eventful. Archosaurs include the only living dinosaur group — birds — and the reptile crocodilians, plus all extinct dinosaurs, extinct crocodilian relatives, and pterosaurs. Archosaur palaeontology is the scientific study of those animals, especially as they existed before the Holocene Epoch began about 11,700 years ago. The year 2010 in paleontology included various significant developments regarding archosaurs.

The Coralline Oolite Formation is a limestone formation of Oxfordian age, found in the Cleveland Basin of North Yorkshire, England.

References

  1. 1 2 British Geological Survey. "Kimmeridge Clay Formation". BGS Lexicon of Named Rock Units. Retrieved 2 November 2018.
  2. 1 2 Gallois R.W. (2004). "The Kimmeridge Clay: the most intensively studied formation in Britain". Open University Geological Journal. 25 (2).
  3. Historic England. "The Humber Bridge (1447321)". National Heritage List for England . Retrieved 2 November 2018.
  4. Gautier D.L. (2005). "Kimmeridgian Shales Total Petroleum System of the North Sea Graben Province" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2 November 2018.
  5. Penn I.M.; Cox B.M.; Gallois R.W. (2007). "Towards precision in stratigraphy: geophysical log correlation". In Gregory F.J.; Copestake P.; Pearce J.M. (eds.). Key Issues in Petroleum Geology: Stratigraphy. Geological Society, London. pp. 34–35. ISBN   978-1-86239-237-3.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 Weishampel, David B; et al. (2004). "Dinosaur distribution (Late Jurassic, Europe)." In: Weishampel, David B.; Dodson, Peter; and Osmólska, Halszka (eds.): The Dinosauria, 2nd, Berkeley: University of California Press. Pp. 545–549. ISBN   0-520-24209-2.
  7. Etches, S, Clarke, J. (2010). Life in Jurassic seas. Dorset, Dorchester: Epic Creative Print.
  8. "The Collection Database". www.theetchescollection.org. Retrieved 31 October 2017.
  9. Underwood, Charlie J.; Claeson, Kerin M. (June 2019). "The Late Jurassic ray Kimmerobatis etchesi gen. et sp. nov. and the Jurassic radiation of the Batoidea". Proceedings of the Geologists' Association. 130 (3–4): 345–354. Bibcode:2019PrGA..130..345U. doi:10.1016/j.pgeola.2017.06.009. S2CID   90691006.
  10. Stumpf, Sebastian; Etches, Steve; Underwood, Charlie J.; Kriwet, Jürgen (11 May 2021). "Durnonovariaodus maiseyi gen. et sp. nov., a new hybodontiform shark-like chondrichthyan from the Upper Jurassic Kimmeridge Clay Formation of England". PeerJ. 9: e11362. doi: 10.7717/peerj.11362 . ISSN   2167-8359. PMC   8121075 . PMID   34026354.
  11. 1 2 Anquetin, Jérémy; Püntener, Christian; Joyce, Walter G. (October 2017). "A Review of the Fossil Record of Turtles of the Clade Thalassochelydia". Bulletin of the Peabody Museum of Natural History. 58 (2): 317–369. doi:10.3374/014.058.0205. ISSN   0079-032X. S2CID   31091127.
  12. Joyce, Walter G.; Mäuser, Matthias (3 June 2020). "New material of named fossil turtles from the Late Jurassic (late Kimmeridgian) of Wattendorf, Germany". PLOS ONE. 15 (6): e0233483. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1533483J. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0233483 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   7269257 . PMID   32492031.
  13. 1 2 3 Anquetin, Jérémy; Chapman, Sandra D. (2016). "First report of Plesiochelys etalloni and Tropidemys langii from the Late Jurassic of the UK and the palaeobiogeography of plesiochelyid turtles". Royal Society Open Science. 3 (1): 150470. Bibcode:2016RSOS....350470A. doi:10.1098/rsos.150470. PMC   4736927 . PMID   26909172.
  14. Foffa, D.; Johnson, M.M.; Young, M.T.; Steel, L.; Brusatte, S.L. (2019). "Revision of the Late Jurassic deep-water teleosauroid crocodylomorph Teleosaurus megarhinus Hulke, 1871 and evidence of pelagic adaptations in Teleosauroidea". PeerJ . 7: e6646. doi: 10.7717/peerj.6646 . PMC   6450380 . PMID   30972249.
  15. 1 2 Wilkinson, L.E.; Young, M.T.; Benton, M.J. (2008). "A new metriorhynchid crocodilian (Mesoeucrocodylia: Thalattosuchia) from the Kimmeridgian (Upper Jurassic) of Wiltshire, UK". Palaeontology. 51 (6): 1307–1333. Bibcode:2008Palgy..51.1307W. doi: 10.1111/j.1475-4983.2008.00818.x .
  16. Andrade, M.B.D.; Young, M.T.; Desojo, J.B.; Brusatte, S.L. (2010). "The evolution of extreme hypercarnivory in Metriorhynchidae (Mesoeucrocodylia: Thalattosuchia) based on evidence from microscopic denticle morphology". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 30 (5): 1451–1465. Bibcode:2010JVPal..30.1451D. doi:10.1080/02724634.2010.501442. hdl: 11336/69039 . S2CID   83985855.
  17. Mark T. Young; Marco Brandalise De Andrade; Steve Etches; Brian L. Beatty (2013). "A new metriorhynchid crocodylomorph from the Lower Kimmeridge Clay Formation (Late Jurassic) of England, with implications for the evolution of dermatocranium ornamentation in Geosaurini". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 169 (4): 820–848. doi:10.1111/zoj.12082.
  18. Martill, D.M.; Naish, D.; Earland, S. (2006). "Dinosaurs in marine strata: evidence from the British Jurassic, including a review of the allochthonous vertebrate assemblage from the marine Kimmeridge Clay Formation (Upper Jurassic) of Great Britain.". Colectivo Arqueológico y Paleontológico Salense (PDF) (Actas de las III Jornadas Internacionales sobre Paleontología de Dinosaurios y su Entorno, 16–17 Sep. 2004. Salas de los Infantes, Burgos, España ed.). pp. 47–84.
  19. "Table 19.1," in Weishampel, et al. (2004). Page 415.
  20. Galton, Peter M. (1999). "Cranial anatomy of the hypsilophodont dinosaur Bugenasaura infernalis (Ornithischia: Ornithopoda) from the Upper Cretaceous of North America". Revue Paléobiologie, Genève. 18 (2): 517–534.
  21. "Table 13.1," in Weishampel, et al. (2004). Page 270.
  22. 1 2 Paul M. Barrett; Roger B.J. Benson; Paul Upchurch (2010). "Dinosaurs of Dorset: Part II, the sauropod dinosaurs (Saurischia, Sauropoda) with additional comments on the theropods". Proceedings of the Dorset Natural History and Archaeological Society. 131: 113–126.
  23. "Table 13.1," in Weishampel, et al. (2004). Page 267.
  24. "Table 13.1," in Weishampel, et al. (2004). Page 271.
  25. Benson, R.B.J. (2008). "New information on Stokesosaurus, a tyrannosauroid (Dinosauria: Theropoda) from North America and the United Kingdom". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 28 (3): 732–750. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2008)28[732:NIOSAT]2.0.CO;2. S2CID   129921557.
  26. Brusatte, S.L.; Benson, R.B.J. (2013). "The systematics of Late Jurassic tyrannosauroids (Dinosauria: Theropoda) from Europe and North America". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 58 (1): 47–54. doi: 10.4202/app.2011.0141 . hdl: 20.500.11820/31f38145-54e7-48f8-819a-262601e93f2b .
  27. 1 2 Carrano, Matthew T.; Benson, Roger B. J.; Sampson, Scott D. (June 2012). "The phylogeny of Tetanurae (Dinosauria: Theropoda)". Journal of Systematic Palaeontology. 10 (2): 211–300. doi:10.1080/14772019.2011.630927. ISSN   1477-2019. S2CID   85354215.
  28. "A new monofenestratan pterosaur from the Kimmeridge Clay Formation (Kimmeridgian, Upper Jurassic) of Dorset, England - Acta Palaeontologica Polonica". www.app.pan.pl. Retrieved 31 August 2017.
  29. Benson, RBJ; Bowdler, T (2014). "Anatomy of Colymbosaurus (Reptilia, Plesiosauria) from the Kimmeridge Clay Formation of the U.K., and high diversity among Late Jurassic plesiosauroids". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 34 (5): 1053–1071. doi:10.1080/02724634.2014.850087. S2CID   85066808.
  30. 1 2 3 4 5 Roger B. J. Benson; Mark Evans; Adam S. Smith; Judyth Sassoon; Scott Moore-Faye; Hilary F. Ketchum; Richard Forrest (2013). "A Giant Pliosaurid Skull from the Late Jurassic of England". PLOS ONE. 8 (5): e65989. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...865989B. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0065989 . PMC   3669260 . PMID   23741520.
  31. 1 2 3 Espen M. Knutsen (2012). "A taxonomic revision of the genus Pliosaurus (Owen, 1841a) Owen, 1841b". Norwegian Journal of Geology. 92 (2–3): 259–276. ISSN   0029-196X. Low resolution pdf Archived 2013-12-24 at the Wayback Machine High resolution pdf Archived 2013-12-24 at the Wayback Machine
  32. Noè, L. F.; Smith, D. T. J.; Walton, D. I. (2004). "A new species of Kimmeridgian pliosaur (Reptilia; Sauropterygia) and its bearing on the nomenclature of Liopleurodon macromerus". Proceedings of the Geologists' Association. 115 (1): 13–24. Bibcode:2004PrGA..115...13N. doi:10.1016/S0016-7878(04)80031-2.
  33. http://www.fullbooks.com/The-Student-s-Elements-of-Geology7.html The Student's Elements of Geology by Sir Charles Lyell Part 7 out of 14 accessed 13 February 2009.
  34. Wignall, Paul B. (1990). "Benthic palaeoecology of the late Jurassic Kimmeridge Clay of England" (PDF). Special Papers in Palaeontology. 43. The Palaeontological Association, London. ISBN   978-0-901702-42-5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 August 2011. Retrieved 8 February 2011.

Bibliography

Further reading