Langerhans cell

Last updated
Langerhans cell
Dendritic cells.jpg
Section of skin showing large numbers of Langerhans cells in the epidermis. ( M. ulcerans infection, S100 immunoperoxidase stain.)
Details
System Immune system
Location Skin and mucosa
Function Dendritic cell
Identifiers
MeSH D007801
FMA 63072
Anatomical terms of microanatomy
The representation of Langerhans cells in the Cell Ontology. A portion of the Cell Ontology is shown with ovals corresponding to cell types defined in the ontology and arrows corresponding to relations between those cell types. Langerhans cell is represented by a yellow oval; blue arrows correspond to is_a relations, and orange arrows correspond to develops_from relations. Only a subset of Langerhans cell parent types are included in the figure. The representation of Langerhans cells in the Cell Ontology.jpg
The representation of Langerhans cells in the Cell Ontology. A portion of the Cell Ontology is shown with ovals corresponding to cell types defined in the ontology and arrows corresponding to relations between those cell types. Langerhans cell is represented by a yellow oval; blue arrows correspond to is_a relations, and orange arrows correspond to develops_from relations. Only a subset of Langerhans cell parent types are included in the figure.

A Langerhans cell (LC) is a tissue-resident macrophage of the skin [2] once thought to be a resident dendritic cell. [3] These cells contain organelles called Birbeck granules. They are present in all layers of the epidermis and are most prominent in the stratum spinosum. [4] They also occur in the papillary dermis, particularly around blood vessels, [4] as well as in the mucosa of the mouth, foreskin, and vaginal epithelium. [5] They can be found in other tissues, such as lymph nodes, particularly in association with the condition Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH).

Contents

Function

In skin infections, the local Langerhans cells take up and process microbial antigens to become fully functional antigen-presenting cells. [6]

Generally, tissue-resident macrophages are involved in immune homeostasis and the uptake of apoptotic bodies. However, Langerhans cells can also take on a dendritic cell-like phenotype and migrate to lymph nodes to interact with naive T-cells.[ medical citation needed ]

Matrix metalloproteinase is important and necessary for langerhans cell when it passes stratum basale. [7]

Langerhans cells derive from primitive erythro-myeloid progenitors that arise in the yolk sac outside the embryo in the first trimester of pregnancy, and under normal circumstances persist throughout life, being replenished by local proliferation as necessary. If the skin becomes severely inflamed, perhaps because of infection, blood monocytes are recruited to the affected region and differentiate into replacement LCs. [8]

Langerin is a protein found in Langerhans cells, [9] and dendritic cells. [10]

LCs contain a large amount of cannabinoid receptor type 2 (CB2), that by activation by agonists, attenuate both the recruitment of eosinophils and ear swelling in chronic contact dermatitis induced by repeated challenge. [11]

Clinical significance

Langerhans cell histiocytosis

In the rare disease Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH), an excess of cells similar to these cells are produced. However LCH cells stain positive to CD14 which is a monocyte marker and shows a different, hematopoietic origin for the disorder. [12] LCH can cause damage to skin, bone and other organs.[ citation needed ]

HIV

Langerhans cells may be initial cellular targets in the sexual transmission of HIV, [13] and may be a target, reservoir, and vector of dissemination. [14] Langerhans cells have been observed in foreskin, vaginal, and oral mucosa of humans; the lower concentrations in oral mucosa suggest that it is not a likely source of HIV infection relative to foreskin and vaginal mucosa. [5]

Human papillomavirus

High-risk human papillomaviruses (HPV) are sexually transmitted viruses causally associated with several cancers including cervical, vaginal, anal, and head and neck cancers that cause significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. [15] [16] [17] [18] Over half of all cervical cancer cases are associated with HPV16, the most common of the cancer-causing high-risk genotypes. [19] During its natural life cycle, HPV16 infects the basal cells of the epithelium and interacts with Langerhans cells within the epithelial layer, [20] which are responsible for initiating immune responses against epithelial invading pathogens. [21] However, HPV does not activate Langerhans cells in vitro, and this may represent a key mechanism by which HPV evades immune detection in vivo. [22] [23] [24] [25] Specifically, HPV16 entry into Langerhans cells via the annexin A2/S100A10 heterotetramer results in suppressive signaling and lack of Langerhans cell-mediated immune responses. [26] This Langerhans cell-targeted immune escape mechanism seems to be conserved among different HPV genotypes enabling these viruses to remain undetected in the absence of other inflammatory events. [27] T cells exposed to these inactivated Langerhans cells are not anergic, and can be activated against HPV upon receiving the appropriate stimuli at a later time point. [28]

It was demonstrated that Langerhans cells in HPV-induced cervical lesions were spherical, lacked dendrites, and secreted the suppressive cytokine IL-10 in vivo. [29] The authors further demonstrated that the number of IL-10 secreting immunosuppressive Langerhans cells, and the amount of IL-10 produced in lesions, corresponded with the severity of histopathology and HPV viral load, providing evidence of an active immunosuppressive mechanism employed by HPV that targets Langerhans cells in vivo.[ citation needed ]

Dengue fever

Langerhans cells are also the initial target of the virus that causes dengue fever during its development. [30]

Declining function during ageing

During ageing the capacity of Langerhans cells to migrate declines. [31] This compromises immunity and exposes the skin to infectious diseases and cancer.[ citation needed ]

History

Langerhans cells are named after Paul Langerhans, a German physician and anatomist, who discovered the cells at the age of 21 while he was a medical student. [32] Because of their dendrite-like appearance, he mistakenly identified the cells as part of the nervous system. [33]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">DNA vaccine</span> Vaccine containing DNA

A DNA vaccine is a type of vaccine that transfects a specific antigen-coding DNA sequence into the cells of an organism as a mechanism to induce an immune response.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human papillomavirus infection</span> Human disease

Human papillomavirus infection is caused by a DNA virus from the Papillomaviridae family. Many HPV infections cause no symptoms and 90% resolve spontaneously within two years. In some cases, an HPV infection persists and results in either warts or precancerous lesions. These lesions, depending on the site affected, increase the risk of cancer of the cervix, vulva, vagina, penis, anus, mouth, tonsils, or throat. Nearly all cervical cancer is due to HPV, and two strains – HPV16 and HPV18 – account for 70% of all cases. HPV16 is responsible for almost 90% of HPV-positive oropharyngeal cancers. Between 60% and 90% of the other cancers listed above are also linked to HPV. HPV6 and HPV11 are common causes of genital warts and laryngeal papillomatosis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Langerhans cell histiocytosis</span> Abnormal proliferation of Langerhans cells in the body

Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH) is an abnormal clonal proliferation of Langerhans cells, abnormal cells deriving from bone marrow and capable of migrating from skin to lymph nodes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia</span> Medical condition

Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN), also known as cervical dysplasia, is the abnormal growth of cells on the surface of the cervix that could potentially lead to cervical cancer. More specifically, CIN refers to the potentially precancerous transformation of cells of the cervix.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Histiocytoma (dog)</span> Benign tumor in dogs

A histiocytoma in the dog is a benign tumor. It is an abnormal growth in the skin of histiocytes (histiocytosis), a cell that is part of the immune system. A similar disease in humans, Hashimoto-Pritzker disease, is also a Langerhans cell histiocytosis. Dog breeds that may be more at risk for this tumor include Bulldogs, American Pit Bull Terriers, American Staffordshire Terriers, Scottish Terriers, Greyhounds, Boxers, and Boston Terriers. They also rarely occur in goats and cattle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Toll-like receptor 2</span> Cell surface receptor found in humans

Toll-like receptor 2 also known as TLR2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TLR2 gene. TLR2 has also been designated as CD282. TLR2 is one of the toll-like receptors and plays a role in the immune system. TLR2 is a membrane protein, a receptor, which is expressed on the surface of certain cells and recognizes foreign substances and passes on appropriate signals to the cells of the immune system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Langerin</span> Protein found in Homo sapiens

Langerin (CD207) is a type II transmembrane protein which is encoded by the CD207 gene in humans. It was discovered by scientists Sem Saeland and Jenny Valladeau as a main part of Birbeck granules. Langerin is C-type lectin receptor on Langerhans cells (LCs) and in mice also on dermal interstitial CD103+ dendritic cells (DC) and on resident CD8+ DC in lymph nodes.

Margaret Anne Stanley, OBE FMedSc, is a British virologist and epithelial biologist. She attended the Universities of London, Bristol, and Adelaide. As of 2018, she is an Emeritus Professor of Epithelial Biology in the Department of Pathology at the University of Cambridge and a Fellow of the Academy of Medical Sciences. She is also an Honorary Fellow of the UK Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists and an honorary fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge. Stanley is a research scientist in virology focusing on the human papillomavirus (HPV). Her research work has led to new scientific findings on HPV. Additionally, she uses her expertise on HPV to serve on multiple advisory committees and journal editorial boards.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Toll-like receptor 5</span> Protein found in humans

Toll-like receptor 5, also known as TLR5, is a protein which in humans is encoded by the TLR5 gene. It is a member of the toll-like receptor (TLR) family. TLR5 is known to recognize bacterial flagellin from invading mobile bacteria. It has been shown to be involved in the onset of many diseases, including Inflammatory bowel disease due to the high expression of TLR in intestinal lamina propria dendritic cells. Recent studies have also shown that malfunctioning of TLR5 is likely related to rheumatoid arthritis, osteoclastogenesis, and bone loss. Abnormal TLR5 functioning is related to the onset of gastric, cervical, endometrial and ovarian cancers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chronic multifocal Langerhans cell histiocytosis</span> Medical condition

Chronic multifocal Langerhans cell histiocytosis, previously known as Hand–Schüller–Christian disease, is a type of Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH), which can affect multiple organs. The condition is traditionally associated with a combination of three features; bulging eyes, breakdown of bone, and diabetes insipidus, although around 75% of cases do not have all three features. Other features may include a fever and weight loss, and depending on the organs involved there may be rashes, asymmetry of the face, ear infections, signs in the mouth and the appearance of advanced gum disease. Features relating to lung and liver disease may occur.

Immunosenescence is the gradual deterioration of the immune system, brought on by natural age advancement. A 2020 review concluded that the adaptive immune system is affected more than the innate immune system. Immunosenescence involves both the host's capacity to respond to infections and the development of long-term immune memory. Age-associated immune deficiency is found in both long- and short-lived species as a function of their age relative to life expectancy rather than elapsed time.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Toll-like receptor 9</span> Protein found in humans

Toll-like receptor 9 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TLR9 gene. TLR9 has also been designated as CD289. It is a member of the toll-like receptor (TLR) family. TLR9 is an important receptor expressed in immune system cells including dendritic cells, macrophages, natural killer cells, and other antigen presenting cells. TLR9 is expressed on endosomes internalized from the plasma membrane, binds DNA, and triggers signaling cascades that lead to a pro-inflammatory cytokine response. Cancer, infection, and tissue damage can all modulate TLR9 expression and activation. TLR9 is also an important factor in autoimmune diseases, and there is active research into synthetic TLR9 agonists and antagonists that help regulate autoimmune inflammation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">C-C chemokine receptor type 7</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

C-C chemokine receptor type 7 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CCR7 gene. Two ligands have been identified for this receptor: the chemokines ligand 19 (CCL19/ELC) and ligand 21 (CCL21). The ligands have similar affinity for the receptor, though CCL19 has been shown to induce internalisation of CCR7 and desensitisation of the cell to CCL19/CCL21 signals. CCR7 is a transmembrane protein with 7 transmembrane domains, which is coupled with heterotrimeric G proteins, which transduce the signal downstream through various signalling cascades. The main function of the receptor is to guide immune cells to immune organs by detecting specific chemokines, which these tissues secrete.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">C-C chemokine receptor type 6</span> Mammalian protein found in Homo sapiens

Chemokine receptor 6 also known as CCR6 is a CC chemokine receptor protein which in humans is encoded by the CCR6 gene. CCR6 has also recently been designated CD196. The gene is located on the long arm of Chromosome 6 (6q27) on the Watson (plus) strand. It is 139,737 bases long and encodes a protein of 374 amino acids.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">CD83</span> Human protein

CD83 is a human protein encoded by the CD83 gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lymphocyte-activation gene 3</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Lymphocyte-activation gene 3, also known as LAG-3, is a protein which in humans is encoded by the LAG3 gene. LAG3, which was discovered in 1990 and was designated CD223 after the Seventh Human Leucocyte Differentiation Antigen Workshop in 2000, is a cell surface molecule with diverse biological effects on T cell function but overall has an immune inhibitory effect. It is an immune checkpoint receptor and as such is the target of various drug development programs by pharmaceutical companies seeking to develop new treatments for cancer and autoimmune disorders. In soluble form it is also being developed as a cancer drug in its own right.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Langerhans cell sarcoma</span> Medical condition

Langerhans cell sarcoma (LCS) is a rare form of malignant histiocytosis. It should not be confused with Langerhans cell histiocytosis, which is cytologically benign. It can present most commonly in the skin and lymphatic tissue, but may also present in the lung, liver, and bone marrow. Treatment is most commonly with surgery or chemotherapy.

Sentinel cells refer to cells in the body's first line of defense, which embed themselves in tissues such as skin. Sentinel cells represent diverse array of cell types with the capability to monitor the presence of exogenous or potentially harmful particles and play a crucial role in recognizing and sampling signs of infection or abnormal cellular activity and/or death. Encountering such stimuli is initiating the innate immune response. Their ability to recognize injurious or dangerous material is mediated by specialized pattern recognition receptors (PRR) and possess specialized function to prime naive T cells upon pathogen recognition.

Jean Sylvia Marshall, born in Birmingham, England, is a Canadian immunologist and acting Professor and Head of the Department of Microbiology & Immunology at Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. Marshall's work has investigated how mast cells are involved in the early immune response to infection and antigen. She is best known for her discovery of the previously unknown degranulation-independent immunoregulatory roles of mast cells in infection and allergy and their ability to mobilize dendritic cells.

Miram Merad is a French-Algerian professor in Cancer immunology and the Director of the Marc and Jennifer Lipschultz Precision Immunology Institute (PrIISM) at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai (ISMMS) in New York, NY. She is the corecipient of the 2018 William B. Coley Award for Distinguished Research in Basic Immunology and a member of the United States National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Medicine.

References

  1. ↑ Masci, Anna; Arighi, Cecilia N; Diehl, Alexander D; Lieberman, Anne E; Mungall, Chris; Scheuermann, Richard H; Smith, Barry; Cowell, Lindsay G (2009). "An improved ontological representation of dendritic cells as a paradigm for all cell types". BMC Bioinformatics. 10: 70. doi: 10.1186/1471-2105-10-70 . PMC   2662812 . PMID   19243617.
  2. ↑ Doebel, T.; Voisin, B.; Nagao, K. (2017). "Langerhans Cells – The Macrophage in Dendritic Cell Clothing". Trends in Immunology. 38 (11): 817–828. doi:10.1016/j.it.2017.06.008. PMID   28720426.
  3. ↑ "MeSH Browser".
  4. 1 2 Young, Barbara; Heath, John W. (2000). Wheater's Functional Histology (4th ed.). Churchill Livingstone. p. 162. ISBN   0-443-05612-9.
  5. 1 2 Hussain, LA; Lehner, T (1995). "Comparative investigation of Langerhans' cells and potential receptors for HIV in oral, genitourinary and rectal epithelia". Immunology. 85 (3): 475–84. PMC   1383923 . PMID   7558138.
  6. ↑ Monnot GC, Wegrecki M, Cheng TY, Chen YL, Sallee BN, Chakravarthy R, Karantza IM, Tin SY, Khaleel AE, Monga I, Uwakwe LN, Tillman A, Cheng B, Youssef S, Ng SW, Shahine A, Garcia-Vilas JA, Uhlemann AC, Bordone LA, Han A, Rohde CH, Ogg G, Moody DB, Rossjohn J, de Jong A (January 2023). "Staphylococcal phosphatidylglycerol antigens activate human T cells via CD1a". Nature Immunology. 24 (1): 110–122. doi:10.1038/s41590-022-01375-z. PMC   10389259 . PMID   35265979. S2CID   255039948.
  7. ↑ Ratzinger, Gudrun; Stoitzner, Patrizia; Ebner, Susanne; Lutz, Manfred B.; Layton, Guy T.; Rainer, Christian; Senior, Robert M.; Shipley, J. Michael; Fritsch, Peter; Schuler, Gerold; Romani, Nikolaus (2002-05-01). "Matrix metalloproteinases 9 and 2 are necessary for the migration of Langerhans cells and dermal dendritic cells from human and murine skin". Journal of Immunology. 168 (9): 4361–4371. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.168.9.4361. ISSN   0022-1767. PMID   11970978.
  8. ↑ Collin, Matthew; Milne, Paul (2016). "Langerhans cell origin and regulation". Current Opinion in Hematology. 23 (1): 28–35. doi:10.1097/MOH.0000000000000202. PMC   4685746 . PMID   26554892.
  9. ↑ Valladeau, Jenny; Dezutter-Dambuyant, Colette; Saeland, Sem (2003). "Langerin/CD207 Sheds Light on Formation of Birbeck Granules and Their Possible Function in Langerhans Cells". Immunologic Research. 28 (2): 93–107. doi:10.1385/IR:28:2:93. PMID   14610287. S2CID   37296843.
  10. ↑ Poulin, Lionel Franz; Henri, Sandrine; de Bovis, Béatrice; Devilard, Elisabeth; Kissenpfennig, Adrien; Malissen, Bernard (2007). "The dermis contains langerin+ dendritic cells that develop and function independently of epidermal Langerhans cells" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Medicine. 204 (13): 3119–31. doi:10.1084/jem.20071724. PMC   2150992 . PMID   18086861. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-07-19. Retrieved 2018-11-04.
  11. ↑ Oka, Saori (2006). "Involvement of the Cannabinoid CB2 Receptor and Its Endogenous Ligand 2-Arachidonoylglycerol in Oxazolone-Induced Contact Dermatitis in Mice". Journal of Immunology. 177 (12): 8796–9505. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.177.12.8796 . PMID   17142782. S2CID   11946479 . Retrieved 2023-03-26.
  12. ↑ "NCI Summary View > Urology - Yale School of Medicine". medicine.yale.edu. Archived from the original on 17 June 2019. Retrieved 19 April 2018.
  13. ↑ Kawamura, Tatsuyoshi; Kurtz, Stephen E.; Blauvelt, Andrew; Shimada, Shinji (2005). "The role of Langerhans cells in the sexual transmission of HIV". Journal of Dermatological Science. 40 (3): 147–55. doi:10.1016/j.jdermsci.2005.08.009. PMID   16226431.
  14. ↑ Dezutter-Dambuyant, C; Charbonnier, AS; Schmitt, D (December 1995). "Cellules dendritiques épithéliales et infection par HIV-1 in vivo et in vitro" [Epithelial dendritic cells and HIV-1 infection in vivo and in vitro]. Pathologie Biologie (in French). 43 (10): 882–8. PMID   8786894.
  15. ↑ Walboomers, J. M.; Jacobs, M. V.; Manos, M. M.; Bosch, F. X.; Kummer, J. A.; Shah, K. V.; Snijders, P. J.; Peto, J.; Meijer, C. J. (1999-09-01). "Human papillomavirus is a necessary cause of invasive cervical cancer worldwide". The Journal of Pathology. 189 (1): 12–19. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-9896(199909)189:1<12::AID-PATH431>3.0.CO;2-F. ISSN   0022-3417. PMID   10451482. S2CID   1522249.
  16. ↑ Arbyn, M.; Castellsagué, X.; de Sanjosé, S.; Bruni, L.; Saraiya, M.; Bray, F.; Ferlay, J. (2011-12-01). "Worldwide burden of cervical cancer in 2008". Annals of Oncology. 22 (12): 2675–2686. doi: 10.1093/annonc/mdr015 . ISSN   1569-8041. PMID   21471563.
  17. ↑ Haedicke, Juliane; Iftner, Thomas (2013-09-01). "Human papillomaviruses and cancer". Radiotherapy and Oncology. 108 (3): 397–402. doi: 10.1016/j.radonc.2013.06.004 . ISSN   1879-0887. PMID   23830197.
  18. ↑ HOFFMANN, MARKUS; QUABIUS, ELGAR S.; TRIBIUS, SILKE; HEBEBRAND, LENA; GÖRÖGH, TIBOR; HALEC, GORDANA; KAHN, TOMAS; HEDDERICH, JÜRGEN; RÖCKEN, CHRISTOPH (2013-05-01). "Human papillomavirus infection in head and neck cancer: The role of the secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor". Oncology Reports. 29 (5): 1962–1968. doi:10.3892/or.2013.2327. ISSN   1021-335X. PMC   3658815 . PMID   23467841.
  19. ↑ Bosch, F. X.; Manos, M. M.; Muñoz, N.; Sherman, M.; Jansen, A. M.; Peto, J.; Schiffman, M. H.; Moreno, V.; Kurman, R. (1995-06-07). "Prevalence of human papillomavirus in cervical cancer: a worldwide perspective. International biological study on cervical cancer (IBSCC) Study Group". Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 87 (11): 796–802. doi:10.1093/jnci/87.11.796. ISSN   0027-8874. PMID   7791229.
  20. ↑ Stanley, M. A.; Pett, M. R.; Coleman, N. (2007-12-01). "HPV: from infection to cancer". Biochemical Society Transactions. 35 (Pt 6): 1456–1460. doi:10.1042/BST0351456. ISSN   0300-5127. PMID   18031245.
  21. ↑ Merad, Miriam; Ginhoux, Florent; Collin, Matthew (2008-12-01). "Origin, homeostasis and function of Langerhans cells and other langerin-expressing dendritic cells". Nature Reviews. Immunology. 8 (12): 935–947. doi:10.1038/nri2455. ISSN   1474-1741. PMID   19029989. S2CID   22286432.
  22. ↑ Fausch, Steven C.; Da Silva, Diane M.; Rudolf, Michael P.; Kast, W. Martin (2002-09-15). "Human papillomavirus virus-like particles do not activate Langerhans cells: a possible immune escape mechanism used by human papillomaviruses". Journal of Immunology. 169 (6): 3242–3249. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.169.6.3242 . ISSN   0022-1767. PMID   12218143.
  23. ↑ Fausch, Steven C.; Da Silva, Diane M.; Kast, W. Martin (2003-07-01). "Differential uptake and cross-presentation of human papillomavirus virus-like particles by dendritic cells and Langerhans cells". Cancer Research. 63 (13): 3478–3482. ISSN   0008-5472. PMID   12839929.
  24. ↑ Fausch, Steven C.; Fahey, Laura M.; Da Silva, Diane M.; Kast, W. Martin (2005-06-01). "Human papillomavirus can escape immune recognition through Langerhans cell phosphoinositide 3-kinase activation". Journal of Immunology. 174 (11): 7172–7178. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.174.11.7172 . ISSN   0022-1767. PMID   15905561.
  25. ↑ Fahey, Laura M.; Raff, Adam B.; Da Silva, Diane M.; Kast, W. Martin (2009-11-15). "A major role for the minor capsid protein of human papillomavirus type 16 in immune escape". Journal of Immunology. 183 (10): 6151–6156. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.0902145 . ISSN   1550-6606. PMC   2947488 . PMID   19864613.
  26. ↑ Woodham, Andrew W.; Raff, Adam B.; Raff, Laura M.; Da Silva, Diane M.; Yan, Lisa; Skeate, Joseph G.; Wong, Michael K.; Lin, Yvonne G.; Kast, W. Martin (2014-05-15). "Inhibition of Langerhans cell maturation by human papillomavirus type 16: a novel role for the annexin A2 heterotetramer in immune suppression". Journal of Immunology. 192 (10): 4748–4757. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1303190. ISSN   1550-6606. PMC   4019435 . PMID   24719459.
  27. ↑ Da Silva, Diane M.; Movius, Carly A.; Raff, Adam B.; Brand, Heike E.; Skeate, Joseph G.; Wong, Michael K.; Kast, W. Martin (2014-03-01). "Suppression of Langerhans cell activation is conserved amongst human papillomavirus α and β genotypes, but not a μ genotype". Virology. 452–453: 279–286. doi:10.1016/j.virol.2014.01.031. ISSN   1096-0341. PMC   3987942 . PMID   24606705.
  28. ↑ Woodham, Andrew W.; Yan, Lisa; Skeate, Joseph G.; van der Veen, Daniel; Brand, Heike H.; Wong, Michael K.; Da Silva, Diane M.; Kast, W. Martin (December 2016). "T cell ignorance is bliss: T cells are not tolerized by Langerhans cells presenting human papillomavirus antigens in the absence of costimulation". Papillomavirus Research (Amsterdam, Netherlands). 2: 21–30. doi:10.1016/j.pvr.2016.01.002. ISSN   2405-8521. PMC   4862606 . PMID   27182559.
  29. ↑ Prata, Thiago Theodoro Martins; Bonin, Camila Mareti; Ferreira, Alda Maria Teixeira; Padovani, Cacilda Tezelli Junqueira; Fernandes, Carlos Eurico Dos Santos; Machado, Ana Paula; Tozetti, Inês Aparecida (2015-09-01). "Local immunosuppression induced by high viral load of human papillomavirus: characterization of cellular phenotypes producing interleukin-10 in cervical neoplastic lesions". Immunology. 146 (1): 113–121. doi:10.1111/imm.12487. ISSN   1365-2567. PMC   4552506 . PMID   26059395.
  30. ↑ Martina BE, Koraka P, Osterhaus AD (October 2009). "Dengue virus pathogenesis: an integrated view". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 22 (4): 564–81. doi:10.1128/CMR.00035-09. PMC 2772360. PMID 19822889.
  31. ↑ Pilkington, S; et al. (2018). "Lower levels of interleukin-1β gene expression are associated with impaired Langerhans' cell migration in aged human skin". Immunology. 153 (1): 60–70. doi:10.1111/imm.12810. PMC   5721243 . PMID   28777886.
  32. ↑ Langerhans, Paul (1868). "Ueber die Nerven der menschlichen Haut" [On the nerves of the human skin]. Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und für klinische Medicin (in German). 44 (2–3): 325–37. doi:10.1007/BF01959006. S2CID   6282875.
  33. ↑ Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM): Langerhans cell histiocytosis - 604856
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.