List of galaxy groups and clusters

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Abell 2744 galaxy cluster - Hubble Frontier Fields view (7 January 2014) Heic1401a-Abell2744-20140107.jpg
Abell 2744 galaxy cluster - Hubble Frontier Fields view (7 January 2014)

This article lists some galaxy groups and galaxy clusters.

Contents

Defining the limits of galaxy clusters is imprecise as many clusters are still forming. In particular, clusters close to the Milky Way tend to be classified as galaxy clusters even when they are much smaller than more distant clusters.

Clusters exhibiting strong evidence of dark matter

Some clusters exhibiting strong evidence of dark matter.

Galaxy cluster Notes
Bullet Cluster In this collision between two clusters of galaxies, the stars pass between each other unhindered, while the hot, diffuse gas experiences friction and is left behind between the clusters. The gas dominates the visible mass budget of the clusters, being several times more massive than all the stars. Yet the regions with the stars show more gravitational lensing than the gas region, indicating that they are more massive than the gas. Some dark (since we don't see it), collision-less (or it would have been slowed, like the gas) matter is inferred to be present to account for the extra lensing around otherwise low-mass regions. [2]
Abell 520 This is actually a collision between two galaxy clusters. The galaxies and the dark matter seems to have separated out into separate dark and light cores. [3]
Abell 2142 A collision between two massive, X-ray luminous galaxy clusters.
Cl 0024+17
(ClG 0024+16, ZwCl 0024+1652)		This is a recently coalesced merger of galaxy clusters, which has resulted in a ring of dark matter around the galaxies, yet to be redistributed. [4] [5]

Named groups and clusters

This is a list of galaxy groups and clusters that are well known by something other than an entry in a catalog or list, or a set of coordinates, or a systematic designation.

Clusters

Galaxy cluster Origin of nameNotes
Bullet Cluster The cluster is named for the merger of two clusters colliding like a bullet.Also has a systematic designation of 1E 0657-56
El Gordo Named for its size, El Gordo ("the fat one") is the biggest cluster found in the distant universe (at its distance and beyond), at the time of discovery in 2011, with a mass of 3 quadrillion suns. The second most massive galaxy cluster next to El Gordo is RCS2 J2327, a galaxy cluster with the mass of 2 quadrillion suns.Also has a systematic designation of ACT-CL J0102-4915. [6] [7] [8]
Musket Ball Cluster Named in comparison to the Bullet Cluster, as this one is older and slower galaxy cluster merger than the Bullet Cluster.Also has a systematic designation of DLSCL J0916.2+2951. [9]
Pandora's Cluster Named because the cluster resulted from a collision of clusters, which resulted in many different and strange phenomena.Also has a catalogue entry of Abell 2744. [10]

Groups

Galaxy group Origin of nameNotes
Local Group The galaxy group that includes the Milky Way.
Bullet Group Named in comparison with the Bullet Cluster, being of similar formation, except smaller.Also has a systematic catalogue name SL2S J08544-0121. As of 2014, it was the lowest mass object that showed separation between the concentrations of dark matter and baryonic matter in the object. [11] [12]
Burbidge Chain
Copeland Septet Discovered by British astronomer Ralph Copeland in 1874.
Deer Lick Group Coined by Tom Lorenzin (author of "1000+ The Amateur Astronomers' Field Guide to Deep Sky Observing") to honor Deer Lick Gap in the mountains of North Carolina, from which he had especially fine views of the galaxy group.Also referred to as the NGC 7331 Group, after the brightest member of the group. [13]
Leo Triplet Named for the fact it contains only three galaxies.This small group of galaxies lies in the constellation Leo.
Markarian's Chain This stretch of galaxies forms part of the Virgo Cluster.
Robert's Quartet It was named by Halton Arp and Barry F. Madore, who compiled A Catalogue of Southern Peculiar Galaxies and Associations in 1987.This compact group of galaxies lies 160 million light-years away in the Phoenix constellation.
Seyfert's Sextet Named after its discoverer, Carl Seyfert. At the time it appeared to contain six external nebulae. It is also called the NGC 6027 Sextet, after its brightest member.There are actually only five galaxies in the sextet, and only four galaxies in the compact group. One of the galaxies is an ungravitationally bound background object. The other "galaxy" is instead an extension of the interacting system — a tidal stream caused by the merger. The group is, therefore, more properly called HCG 79; the name refers to the visual collection and not the group. HCG 79 lies 190 million light-years away in the Serpens Caput constellation.
Stephan's Quintet (Stephan's Quartet)Named after its discoverer, Édouard Stephan.There are actually only four galaxies in the compact group, the other galaxy is a foreground galaxy. The group is therefore more properly called HCG 92, because the name refers to a visual collection and not a group. Thus, the real group is also called Stephan's Quartet.
Wild's Triplet Named after the British-born and Australia-based astronomer Paul Wild (1923–2008), who studied the trio in the early 1950s. [14]
Zwicky's Triplet

The major nearby groups and clusters are generally named after the constellation they lie in. Many groups are named after the leading galaxy in the group. This represents an ad hoc systematic naming system.

Groups and clusters visible to the unaided eye

The Local Group contains the largest number of visible galaxies with the naked eye. However, its galaxies are not visually grouped together in the sky, except for the two Magellanic Clouds. The IC342/Maffei Group, the nearest galaxy group, would be visible by the naked eye if it were not obscured by the stars and dust clouds in the Milky Way's spiral arms.

Galaxy group Visible galaxies Notes
Local Group 5Apart from the Milky Way, only 4 galaxies are visible to the naked eye. [15]
Centaurus A/M83 Group 2The Centaurus A galaxy has been spotted with the naked eye by Stephen James O'Meara [16] [17] and M83 has also reportedly been seen with the naked eye. [18]
M81 Group 1Only Bode's Galaxy (M81, NGC 3031) is visible to the naked eye. [15] [19]

Firsts

First discoveredNameDateNotes
Galaxy cluster Virgo Cluster 1784Discovered by Charles Messier. [21]
Galaxy group
Compact groupThe four brightest members of Stephan's Quintet 1877Discovered by Edouard Stephan.
Proto-cluster
Double galaxy Magellanic Clouds antiquity

Extremes

TitleNameDataNotestime
Most distant galaxy cluster CL J1001+0220 redshift z=2.506Announced August 2016. [22]
Nearest galaxy cluster Virgo Cluster The Virgo Cluster is at the core of the Virgo Supercluster. The Local Group is a member of the supercluster, but not the cluster.
Most distant galaxy group
Nearest galaxy group Local Group 0 distanceThis is the galaxy group that our galaxy belongs to.
Nearest neighbouring galaxy group IC 342/Maffei Group
Most distant proto-cluster A2744z7p9OD z=7.88 [23]
Nearest proto-cluster
Most distant massive proto-cluster z66OD z=6.585At time of discovery in 2019, the object had 12 members, including Himiko. [24] [25] [26]
Least massive galaxy group
Most massive galaxy cluster RX J1347.5-1145 mass= 2.0 ± 0.4 × 1015 MSun
  • distance: z= 0.451
  • LX-ray = 6.0 ± 0.1 × 1045 erg/s in the [2-10] keV energy band
  • temperature: kT = 10.0 ± 0.3 keV

[27] [28]

Closest groups

Galaxy groups closer than the Virgo Cluster
Galaxy group Distance Redshift (z) Recession velocity (km/s) Notes
Local Group ---Our Galaxy, the Milky Way, belongs to the Local Group.
LGG 104 (IC 342/Maffei Group, IC 342 / Maffei 1 Group, IC 342 Maffei 1-2 Group)0.000868260The IC 342/Maffei Group contains two subgroups, the IC 342 subgroup (IC 342 Group) and the Maffei 1 subgroup (Maffei subgroup, Maffei 1 Group, Maffei Group).
M81 Group (NGC 3031 Group)3.5  Mpc (11.4  Mly )0.001115334 [29]
Centaurus A/M83 Group (Centaurus A Group, M83 Group)3.66  Mpc (11.9  Mly )0.000999299The Centaurus A/M83 Group contains two subgroups, the Centaurus A subgroup (Centaurus A Group, NGC 5128 Group, LGG 344) and the M83 subgroup (M83 Group, NGC 5236 Group, LGG 355).
Sculptor Group (South Polar Group)3.9  Mpc (12.7  Mly )
Canes Venatici Group (Canes Venatici I Group, Canes I Group, M94 Group, NGC 4736 Group, LGG 291)4  Mpc (13.0  Mly )0.001612483
NGC 1023 Group (LGG 70)6.12  Mpc (20.0  Mly )0.002926877
M101 Group (NGC 5457 Group, LGG 371)7.33  Mpc (23.9  Mly )0.001288386
NGC 2997 Group (LGG 180)7.66  Mpc (25.0  Mly )0.002615784
Canes Venatici II Group (Canes II Group)8  Mpc (26.1  Mly )
M51 Group (NGC 5194 Group, LGG 347)9.5  Mpc (31.0  Mly )0.001850555 [29]
Leo Triplet (M66 Group, NGC 3627 Group, LGG 231)10.75  Mpc (35.1  Mly )0.002207662
Leo Group (Leo I Group, M96 Group, NGC 3379 Group, LGG 217)11.66  Mpc (38.0  Mly )0.002267680
Draco Group 12.25  Mpc (40.0  Mly )
LGG 396 (NGC 5866 Group, NGC 5907 Group)0.003020905
Ursa Major Group (Ursa Major I Group, M109 Group, NGC 3992 Group, NGC 3726 Group, LGG 258)16.88  Mpc (55.1  Mly )0.0033881016 [29]
  • Mly represents millions of light-years, a measure of distance.
  • Mpc represents millions of parsecs, a measure of distance (1 Mpc = 3.26 Mly).
  • z represents redshift, a measure of recessional velocity and inferred distance due to cosmological expansion.
    In this very nearby context, however, the observed redshift and recessional velocity are due to the Doppler shifting of the light.
  • Distances are measured from Earth, with Earth being at zero.

Closest clusters

Closest clusters
Galaxy cluster Distance Redshift (z) Recession velocity (km/s) Notes
Virgo Cluster 18  Mpc (59  Mly )0.00381139The Virgo Cluster is at the core of the Virgo Supercluster. The Local Group is a member of the supercluster, but not the cluster. [30]
Fornax Cluster (Abell S 373, AM 0336-353, MCL 52)19  Mpc (62  Mly )0.00461379 [30]
Antlia Cluster (Abell S 636)40.7  Mpc (133  Mly )0.00872608Also called the Antlia Group.
Centaurus Cluster (Abell 3526, Cl 1247-4102)52.4 Mpc0.01103298 [30]
Hydra Cluster (Hydra I Cluster, Abell 1060, Cl 1034-2716)58.3 Mpc0.01143418 [30]
  • Mly represents millions of light-years, a measure of distance.
  • Mpc represents millions of parsecs, a measure of distance.
  • z represents redshift, a measure of recessional velocity and inferred distance due to cosmological expansion.
  • Distances are measured from Earth, with Earth being at zero.

Farthest clusters

Farthest clusters
Galaxy cluster DistanceNotes
No entries yet
  • Mly represents millions of light-years, a measure of distance.
  • Mpc represents millions of parsecs, a measure of distance.
  • z represents redshift, a measure of recessional velocity and inferred distance due to cosmological expansion.
  • Distances are measured from Earth, with Earth being at zero.
Most remote cluster titleholder
Galaxy cluster Date Redshift (z)Recession Velocity
(km/s)		Notes
CL J1001+0220 2016 − 2.506 [22]
CL J1449+0856
(ClG J1449+0856)		2011–20162.07 [31] [32] [33]
JKCS 041 2009–20111.9
XMMXCS 2215-1738 (XMMXCS 2215.9-1738)2006–20091.45 XMM-XCS 2215-1738 was also the most massive early cluster so far discovered. [34] [35]
ISCS J143809+341419 2005–20061.41 [36] [37]
XMMU J2235.3-2557 20051.393 [38] [39] [40] [41]
RDCS 0848+4453 ( RDCS0848.6+4453, RX J0848+4453, ClG 0848+4453 )1997–1.276ClG 0848+4453 forms a double-cluster supercluster with RDCS J0849+4452 [42] [43] [44] [45] [46]
galaxy cluster around 3C 324 (3C 234 Cluster)1984–1.206At the time, the BCG, 3C324 was the most distant non-quasar galaxy. [47]
Cl 1409+524 1960–19750.461The measurement of 3C295's redshift in 1960 also defined its cluster's position. 3C 295 was also the most distant galaxy of the time. [48] [49]
Abell 732 (fainter Hydra Cluster Cl 0855+0321)1951–19600.261 000 Attempts at measuring the redshift of the brightest cluster galaxy of this Hydra Cluster had been attempted for years before it had been successfully achieved. The BCG was also the most distant galaxy of the time. [48] [50] [51] [52]
Abell 1930 (Bootes Cluster)1936–19510.1339 000 The BCG of this cluster was also the most distant galaxy of the time. [51] [53]
Gemini Cluster (Abell 568)1932 − 19360.07523 000 The BCG of this cluster was the most distant galaxy at the time. [53] [54]
WH Christie's Leo Cluster1931–193219 700 The BCG of this cluster was the most distant galaxy known at the time. [51] [54] [55] [56] [57]
Baede's Ursa Major Cluster 1930–193111 700 The BCG of this cluster was the highest redshift galaxy of the time. [57] [58]
Coma Cluster 1929–19300.0267 800 This cluster's distance was determined by one of the NGC objects lying in it, NGC4860. [58] [59]
Pegasus Group (LGG 473, NGC 7619 Group)19290.0123 779 The BCG for this group was used to measure its redshift. Shortly after this was publicized, it was accepted that redshifts were an acceptable measure of inferred distance. [60]
Cetus Group (Holmberg 45, LGG 27)1921–19290.0061 800  NGC 584 (Dreyer 584) was measured for the redshift to this galaxy group. [60] [61] [62] [63]
Virgo Cluster 1784–192159  Mly (18  Mpc)
z=0.003		1 200 This was the first noted cluster of "nebulae" that would become galaxies. The first redshifts to galaxies in the cluster were measured in the 1910s. Galaxies were not identified as such until the 1920s. The distance to the Virgo Cluster would have to wait until the 1930s. [21]
  • Mly represents millions of light-years, a measure of distance.
  • Mpc represents millions of parsecs, a measure of distance.
  • z represents redshift, a measure of recessional velocity and inferred distance due to cosmological expansion.
  • Distances are measured from Earth, with Earth being at zero.

Farthest protoclusters

5 Farthest protoclusters
Galaxy protoclusterDistanceNotes
No entries yet
  • Mly represents millions of light-years, a measure of distance.
  • Mpc represents millions of parsecs, a measure of distance.
  • z represents redshift, a measure of recessional velocity and inferred distance due to cosmological expansion.
  • Distances are measured from Earth, with Earth being at zero.
Most remote protocluster titleholder
Galaxy protoclusterDate Redshift (z)Notes
BoRG-58 2012~ 8 [72]
COSMOS-AzTEC3 2011–5.3Located in Sextans, the cluster appears to contain 11 young small galaxies. [73] [74]
Protocluster around radio-galaxy TN J1338-1942 2002–4.11It was described as the most distant cluster. [75] [76] [77] [78]
Protocluster around 3C 368 1982–1.13 [79]
  • z represents redshift, a measure of recessional velocity and inferred distance due to cosmological expansion.
  • Distances are measured from Earth, with Earth being at zero.

False clusters

Sometimes clusters are put forward that are not genuine clusters or superclusters. Through the researching of member positions, distances, peculiar velocities, and binding mass, former clusters are sometimes found to be the product of a chance line-of-sight superposition.

Former cluster Notes
Cancer Cluster The Cancer Cluster was found to be a random assortment of galaxy groups, and not a true cluster. [21]
Coma-Virgo Cloud The early identification of the Coma-Virgo Cloud of Nebulae was actually a mistaken identification due to the superposition of the Virgo Supercluster and Coma Supercluster, and not a Coma-Virgo Supercluster

See also

Lists of groups and clusters

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Supercluster</span> Large group of smaller galaxy clusters or galaxy groups

A supercluster is a large group of smaller galaxy clusters or galaxy groups; they are among the largest known structures in the universe. The Milky Way is part of the Local Group galaxy group, which in turn is part of the Virgo Supercluster, which is part of the Laniakea Supercluster, which is part of the Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex. The large size and low density of superclusters means that they, unlike clusters, expand with the Hubble expansion. The number of superclusters in the observable universe is estimated to be 10 million.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Serpens</span> Constellation split into two non-contiguous parts

Serpens is a constellation in the northern celestial hemisphere. One of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd-century astronomer Ptolemy, it remains one of the 88 modern constellations designated by the International Astronomical Union. It is unique among the modern constellations in being split into two non-contiguous parts, Serpens Caput to the west and Serpens Cauda to the east. Between these two halves lies the constellation of Ophiuchus, the "Serpent-Bearer". In figurative representations, the body of the serpent is represented as passing behind Ophiuchus between Mu Serpentis in Serpens Caput and Nu Serpentis in Serpens Cauda.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Andromeda Galaxy</span> Barred spiral galaxy in the Local Group

The Andromeda Galaxy is a barred spiral galaxy and is the nearest major galaxy to the Milky Way. It was originally named the Andromeda Nebula and is cataloged as Messier 31, M31, and NGC 224. Andromeda has a D25 isophotal diameter of about 46.56 kiloparsecs (152,000 light-years) and is approximately 765 kpc (2.5 million light-years) from Earth. The galaxy's name stems from the area of Earth's sky in which it appears, the constellation of Andromeda, which itself is named after the princess who was the wife of Perseus in Greek mythology.

An active galactic nucleus (AGN) is a compact region at the center of a galaxy that emits a significant amount of energy across the electromagnetic spectrum, with characteristics indicating that this luminosity is not produced by the stars. Such excess, non-stellar emissions have been observed in the radio, microwave, infrared, optical, ultra-violet, X-ray and gamma ray wavebands. A galaxy hosting an AGN is called an active galaxy. The non-stellar radiation from an AGN is theorized to result from the accretion of matter by a supermassive black hole at the center of its host galaxy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Abell 2218</span> Galaxy cluster in the constellation Draco

Abell 2218 is a large cluster of galaxies over 2 billion light-years away in the constellation Draco.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Centaurus A</span> Radio galaxy in the constellation Centaurus

Centaurus A is a galaxy in the constellation of Centaurus. It was discovered in 1826 by Scottish astronomer James Dunlop from his home in Parramatta, in New South Wales, Australia. There is considerable debate in the literature regarding the galaxy's fundamental properties such as its Hubble type and distance. It is the closest radio galaxy to Earth, as well as the closest BL Lac object, so its active galactic nucleus has been extensively studied by professional astronomers. The galaxy is also the fifth-brightest in the sky, making it an ideal amateur astronomy target. It is only visible from the southern hemisphere and low northern latitudes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sombrero Galaxy</span> Galaxy in the constellation Virgo

The Sombrero Galaxy is a peculiar galaxy of unclear classification in the constellation borders of Virgo and Corvus, being about 9.55 megaparsecs from the Milky Way galaxy. It is a member of the Virgo II Groups, a series of galaxies and galaxy clusters strung out from the southern edge of the Virgo Supercluster. It has an isophotal diameter of approximately 29.09 to 32.32 kiloparsecs, making it slightly bigger in size than the Milky Way.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lyman-alpha blob</span> Astronomical object type

In astronomy, a Lyman-alpha blob (LAB) is a huge concentration of a gas emitting the Lyman-alpha emission line. LABs are some of the largest known individual objects in the Universe. Some of these gaseous structures are more than 400,000 light years across. So far they have only been found in the high-redshift universe because of the ultraviolet nature of the Lyman-alpha emission line. Since Earth's atmosphere is very effective at filtering out UV photons, the Lyman-alpha photons must be redshifted in order to be transmitted through the atmosphere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NGC 4536</span> Spiral galaxy in the constellation Virgo

NGC 4536 is an intermediate spiral galaxy in the constellation Virgo located about 10° south of the midpoint of the Virgo cluster. However, it is not considered a member of the cluster. Rather, it is a member of the M61 Group of galaxies, which is a member of the Virgo II Groups, a series of galaxies and galaxy clusters strung out from the southern edge of the Virgo Supercluster. The morphological classification in the De Vaucouleurs system is SAB(rs)bc, which indicates it is a weakly barred spiral galaxy with a hint of an inner ring structure plus moderate to loosely wound arms. It does not have a classical bulge around the nucleus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Galaxy filament</span> Largest structures in the universe, made of galaxies

In cosmology, galaxy filaments are the largest known structures in the universe, consisting of walls of galactic superclusters. These massive, thread-like formations can commonly reach 50/h to 80/h Megaparsecs —with the largest found to date being the Hercules-Corona Borealis Great Wall at around 3 gigaparsecs (9.8 Gly) in length—and form the boundaries between voids. Due to the accelerating expansion of the universe, the individual clusters of gravitationally bound galaxies that make up galaxy filaments are moving away from each other at an accelerated rate; in the far future they will dissolve.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NGC 4921</span> Galaxy in the constellation Coma Berenices

NGC 4921 is a barred spiral galaxy in the Coma Cluster, located in the constellation Coma Berenices. It is about 320 million light-years from Earth. The galaxy has a nucleus with a bar structure that is surrounded by a distinct ring of dust that contains recently formed, hot blue stars. The outer part consists of unusually smooth, poorly distinguished spiral arms.

The Lynx Supercluster was discovered in 1999 as ClG J0848+4453, a name now used to describe the western cluster, with ClG J0849+4452 being the eastern one. It contains at least two clusters, designated RXJ 0848.9+4452 and RXJ 0848.6+4453. At the time of discovery, it was the most distant known supercluster with a comoving distance of 12.9 billion light years. Additionally, seven smaller groups of galaxies are associated with the supercluster. Through electromagnetic radiation and how it reacts with matter, we have been able to find three groupings of stars and two x-ray clusters within the Lynx.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NGC 3862</span> Galaxy in the constellation Leo

NGC 3862 is an elliptical galaxy located 300 million light-years away in the constellation Leo. Discovered by astronomer William Herschel on April 27, 1785, NGC 3862 is an outlying member of the Leo Cluster.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NGC 4494</span> Galaxy in the constellation Coma Berenices

NGC 4494 is an elliptical galaxy located in the constellation Coma Berenices. It is located at a distance of circa 45 million light years from Earth, which, given its apparent dimensions, means that NGC 4494 is about 60,000 light years across. It was discovered by William Herschel in 1785.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NGC 3860</span> Spiral galaxy in the constellation Leo

NGC 3860 is a spiral galaxy located about 340 million light-years away in the constellation Leo. NGC 3860 was discovered by astronomer William Herschel on April 27, 1785. The galaxy is a member of the Leo Cluster and is a low-luminosity AGN (LLAGN). Gavazzi et al. however classified NGC 3860 as a strong AGN which may have been triggered by a supermassive black hole in the center of the galaxy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NGC 7720</span> Galaxy in the constellation Pegasus

NGC 7720 is an elliptical galaxy located in the constellation Pegasus. It is located at a distance of about 380 million light years from Earth, which, given its apparent dimensions, means that NGC 7720 is about 180,000 light years across. NGC 7720 is the main galaxy of Abell 2634 galaxy cluster and is a radio galaxy. It was discovered by William Herschel on September 10, 1784.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">MRC 0316-257</span> Radio galaxy in the constellation Fornax

MRC 0316-257 is a radio galaxy located in the constellation Fornax. Its redshift is 3.13, making the object located roughly 11 billion light-years from Earth.

References

  1. ↑ Clavin, Whitney; Jenkins, Ann; Villard, Ray (7 January 2014). "NASA's Hubble and Spitzer Team up to Probe Faraway Galaxies". NASA . Retrieved 8 January 2014.
  2. ↑ "Galaxy Collision Separates Out the Dark Matter". Universe Today. 2006-08-21.
  3. ↑ "Galaxy Cluster Collision Creates a Dark Matter Core". Universe Today. 2007-08-16.
  4. ↑ "Ring of Dark Matter Discovered Around a Galaxy Cluster". Universe Today. 2007-05-15.
  5. ↑ SIMBAD, "ClG 0024+17"
  6. ↑ Schilling, Govert (12 January 2012). "When Galaxies Crash". ScienceNOW. Archived from the original on 2012-01-29.
  7. ↑ "Humongous 'El Gordo' galaxy cluster packs mass of 2 quadrillion stars". Christian Science Monitor. 2012-01-11.
  8. ↑ NASA, "El Gordo Galaxy Cluster", 10 January 2012 (accessed 7 July 2012)
  9. ↑ "Discovery of the Musket Ball Cluster, a system of colliding galaxy clusters". Science Daily.
  10. ↑ ESO, "A Galactic Crash Investigation", 22 June 2011 (accessed 7 July 2012)
  11. ↑ XMM-Newton (6 June 2014). "Cosmic collision in the Bullet Group". European Space Agency.
  12. ↑ Gastaldello, F.; et al. (2014). "Dark matter–baryons separation at the lowest mass scale: The Bullet Group". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters. 442: L76–L80. arXiv: 1404.5633 . Bibcode:2014MNRAS.442L..76G. doi: 10.1093/mnrasl/slu058 .
  13. ↑ Saratoga Skies, "NGC 7331 (Deer Lick Group and Stephan's Quintet)", Jim Solomon (accessed 7 May 2009)
  14. ↑ "Wild's Triplet". Oxford Reference . Retrieved 13 October 2018.
  15. 1 2 Stephen Uitti (27 May 2005). "Farthest Naked Eye Object". Uitti.net. Retrieved 2008-11-01.
  16. ↑ "Aintno Catalog".
  17. ↑ Inglis, Mike (2007). "Galaxies". Astrophysics is Easy! An Introduction for the Amateur Astronomer. Patrick Moore's Practical Astronomy Series. pp.  157–189. doi:10.1007/978-1-84628-736-7_4. ISBN   978-1-85233-890-9.
  18. ↑ Inglis, Mike (2007). "Galaxies". Astrophysics is Easy! An Introduction for the Amateur Astronomer. Patrick Moore's Practical Astronomy Series. pp.  157–189. doi:10.1007/978-1-84628-736-7_4. ISBN   978-1-85233-890-9.
  19. ↑ SEDS, Messier 81
  20. ↑ A. Schwope (2013). "Galaxy Clusters". Arches Project.
  21. 1 2 3 Biviano, Andrea; et al. (2000). "From Messier to Abell: 200 years of science with galaxy clusters". In Florence Durret; Daniel Gerbal (eds.). Constructing the Universe with Clusters of Galaxies, IAP 2000 meeting, Paris, France, July 2000. p. 1. arXiv: astro-ph/0010409 . Bibcode:2000cucg.confE...1B.{{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  22. 1 2 Wang, Tao; et al. (2016). "Discovery of a galaxy cluster with a violently starbursting core at z=2.506". The Astrophysical Journal. 828 (1): 56. arXiv: 1604.07404 . Bibcode:2016ApJ...828...56W. doi: 10.3847/0004-637X/828/1/56 . S2CID   8771287.
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  24. ↑ National Institutes of Natural Sciences (27 September 2019). "Oldest galaxy protocluster forms 'queen's court'". ScienceDaily.
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