A Chinese-English Dictionary: Compiled for the China Inland Mission by R. H. Mathews (1931) or Mathews' Chinese-English Dictionary (1943), edited by the Australian Congregationalist missionary Robert Henry Mathews (1877-1970), was the standard Chinese-English dictionary for decades. Mathews originally intended his dictionary to be a revision of Frederick W. Baller's out-of-print (1900) An Analytical Chinese-English Dictionary, Compiled for the China Inland Mission, but ended up compiling a new dictionary. Mathews copied, without any acknowledgment, from Herbert Allen Giles' (1892, 1912) A Chinese-English Dictionary.
Robert Henry Mathews (1877–1970) was an Australian missionary and Sinologist, best known for his 1931 A Chinese-English Dictionary: Compiled for the China Inland Mission by R. H. Mathews, which was subsequently revised by Harvard University Press in 1943. He served with the China Inland Mission from 1906, before retiring to Australia in 1945.
Frederick William Baller was a British Protestant Christian missionary to China, Chinese linguist, translator, educator and sinologist.
The 1,250-page first edition contained 7,783 Chinese characterhead entries, alphabetically collated by romanized syllabic order in modified Wade-Giles system, and includes 104,000 words and phrases taken from the classics, general literature, and news media. Owing to a World War II shortage of Chinese-English dictionaries, Harvard University Press published a revised American edition (1943) Mathews' Chinese-English Dictionary, which included 15,000 corrections, revisions, and new examples.
A headword, head word, lemma, or sometimes catchword, is the word under which a set of related dictionary or encyclopaedia entries appears. The headword is used to locate the entry, and dictates its alphabetical position. Depending on the size and nature of the dictionary or encyclopedia, the entry may include alternative meanings of the word, its etymology, pronunciation and inflections, compound words or phrases that contain the headword, and encyclopedic information about the concepts represented by the word.
Collation is the assembly of written information into a standard order. Many systems of collation are based on numerical order or alphabetical order, or extensions and combinations thereof. Collation is a fundamental element of most office filing systems, library catalogs, and reference books.
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. The vast majority of the world's countries—including all the great powers—eventually formed two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. A state of total war emerged, directly involving more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. The major participants threw their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities behind the war effort, blurring the distinction between civilian and military resources. World War II was the deadliest conflict in human history, marked by 50 to 85 million fatalities, most of whom were civilians in the Soviet Union and China. It included massacres, the genocide of the Holocaust, strategic bombing, premeditated death from starvation and disease, and the only use of nuclear weapons in war.
Flemington is an inner suburb of Melbourne, Australia, 4 km north-west of Melbourne's central business district. Its local government areas are the Cities of Melbourne and Moonee Valley. At the 2016 census, Flemington had a population of 7,719.
Lithography is a method of printing originally based on the immiscibility of oil and water. The printing is from a stone or a metal plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by German author and actor Alois Senefelder as a cheap method of publishing theatrical works. Lithography can be used to print text or artwork onto paper or other suitable material.
Henan is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the central part of the country. Henan is often referred to as Zhongyuan or Zhongzhou (中州) which literally means "central plain land" or "midland", although the name is also applied to the entirety of China proper. Henan is the birthplace of Chinese civilization with over 3,000 years of recorded history, and remained China's cultural, economical, and political center until approximately 1,000 years ago.
In 1928, Mathews was assigned to the China Inland Mission headquarters in Shanghai, where he could fully utilize his printing and Chinese linguistic skills. They commissioned him to revise two out-of-print China Inland Mission publications by Frederick W. Baller, the (1900) Analytical Chinese-English Dictionary and (1900) Mandarin Primer. Robert Mathews and his wife Violet worked intensively to complete the (1931) Chinese-English Dictionary in only 3 years (he calls it a "rush job"), and then, for westerners seeking a "working knowledge" of Chinese, the (1938) Kuoyü Primer: Progressive Studies in the Chinese National Language in 7 years during the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War (Brooks 2008). In 1943, Japanese occupation troops interned Mathews, commandeered the CIM compound in Shanghai to use as their headquarters, and destroyed both the dictionary printing plates and Mathews' manuscripts and proofs for a revised edition.
Shanghai is one of the four municipalities under the direct administration of the central government of the People's Republic of China, the largest city in China by population, and the second most populous city proper in the world, with a population of 24.18 million as of 2017. It is a global financial center and transport hub, with the world's busiest container port. Located in the Yangtze River Delta, it sits on the south edge of the estuary of the Yangtze in the middle portion of the West China coast. The municipality borders the provinces of Jiangsu and Zhejiang to the south, east and west, and is bound to the east by the East China Sea.
The Second Sino-Japanese War was a military conflict fought primarily between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan from July 7, 1937, to September 2, 1945. It began with the Marco Polo Bridge Incident in 1937 in which a dispute between Japanese and Chinese troops escalated into a battle. Some sources in the modern People's Republic of China date the beginning of the war to the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931.
The 1931 first edition A Chinese-English Dictionary: Compiled for the China Inland Mission by R. H. Mathews began as a revision of Baller's (1900) Analytical Dictionary, but ended up as "a 'new' dictionary" (Dunn 1997: 77). Robert Mathew's preface (1931: vi) says that in the 30 years since Baller's outdated dictionary, the "influx of modern inventions and the advance of scientific knowledge" in China have introduced many neologisms. Consequently Mathews compiled a replacement dictionary, keeping in mind Baller's original objective (1900: iii), "to supply the demand for a dictionary at once portable and inexpensive and at the same time sufficiently large to meet the wants of an ordinary student." Mathews' Chinese title is Maishi Han-Ying da cidian麥氏漢英大辭典 "Mai's Chinese-English dictionary".
A neologism describes a relatively recent or isolated term, word, or phrase that may be in the process of entering common use, but that has not yet been fully accepted into mainstream language. Neologisms are often driven by changes in culture and technology, and may be directly attributable to a specific person, publication, period, or event. In the process of language formation, neologisms are more mature than protologisms.
Instead of adopting the usual Wade-Giles system for romanizing Chinese pronunciation, Baller created his own system, now referred to as Baller's system or the China Inland Mission system. Another shortcoming of Baller's dictionary was inconsistent treatment of Chinese varietal pronunciations, furnishing "the sounds of characters as given in West China" (Southwestern Mandarin and Chang-Du dialect) and ignoring "spoken in the south-eastern (Yong and Peng 2008: 390).
Southwestern Mandarin, also known as Upper Yangtze Mandarin, is a primary branch of Mandarin Chinese spoken in much of central and southwestern China, including in Sichuan, Yunnan, Chongqing, Guizhou, most parts of Hubei, the northwestern part of Hunan, the northern part of Guangxi, and some southern parts of Shaanxi and Gansu. Some forms of Southwest Mandarin are not entirely mutually intelligible with Standard Chinese or other forms of Mandarin.
Chang-Du or Chang-Jing dialect, sometimes called Nanchang dialect after its principal variety, is a dialect of Gan Chinese. It is named after Nanchang and Duchang County, and is spoken in those areas as well as in Xinjian, Anyi, Yongxiu, De'an, Xingzi, Hukou, and bordering regions in Jiangxi and in Pingjiang County, Hunan.
After Japanese troops in Shanghai destroyed the Mathews' dictionary original printing plates, the lack of copies became an urgent matter for English-speaking Allies of World War II. The Harvard–Yenching Institute said the need for Chinese dictionaries in America had "grown from chronic to acute", and selected Mathews' lexicon as one of two "practical dictionaries" to revise and reprint for "the immediate demands of American students". Both photolithographic reproductions were retitled: Henry Courtenay Fenn's (1926) The Five Thousand Dictionary was Fenn's Pocket Dictionary (November 1942) and Mathews' A Chinese-English Dictionary… was Mathews' Chinese-English Dictionary (March 1943), which was a "pirated" edition since Mathews never received any payment (Stock 1956: 424). The revised edition made a total of 15,000 changes to the original, "errors have been corrected, pronunciations and definitions revised, and new entries inserted" (1943: v). In addition, the Chinese-American linguist Yuen Ren Chao wrote an Introduction on Pronunciation. The dictionary was reduced in size from 8x11 to 7x10 inches. In 1944, Harvard University Press also published Mathews' Chinese-English Dictionary Revised English Index. By 1984, the Press had sold more than 45,000 copies of Mathew's dictionary (Hall 1986: 84).
Up through the 1970s, English-speaking students of Chinese relied chiefly on Mathews' Chinese-English Dictionary (Norman 1988: 173). Scholars published several companion pieces for Mathews. Tse-tsung Chow (周策縱) of the University of Wisconsin compiled (1972) A New Index to Mathews' Chinese-English Dictionary, Based on the "Chung" system for Arranging Chinese Characters, referring to the obsolescent zhōng 衷 indexing system based on character strokes. Olov Bertil Anderson of Lund University published (1972) A companion volume to R. H. Mathews' Chinese-English dictionary, which went into a 335-page third revision in 1988. Harry M. Branch developed a Five Willows system and published (1973) Mathews' and Fenn re-indexed (Yang 1985: 290). Raymond Huang (1981) wrote a descriptive Mandarin Pronunciation Explained with Diagrams: A Companion to R. H. Mathews' Chinese-English Dictionary.
Mathews' Chinese-English dictionary has been reprinted time and again—but without his authorization—and became so prominent that it is often simply called Mathews (Huck 1986). The English diplomat and sinologist Endymion Wilkinson says Mathews' continues in use, especially by students of Classical Chinese, but for other purposes it has been outdated by excellent dictionaries such as John DeFrancis' (1996) ABC Chinese-English Dictionary (2000: 93).
Mathews not only revised Baller's dictionary but augmented and innovated it as well. Baller included 6,089 character head entries (not including variant characters) and 40,000 word and phrase examples; Mathews increased the number of character entries to "7,785" (the last entry is number 7,783 yün 薀 "Hippuris or mare's tail.") and gave over 104,000 usage examples drawn from "the classics, general literature, magazines, newspapers, advertisements, legal documents, and many other sources", including technical terms "relating to motors, electricity, aviation, [and] wireless" (1931: vi, vii).
Mathews changed Baller's romanization system to Wade-Giles, and omitted Baller's explanations of Chinese character construction. For example, saying Number 5047, tao4 道 "A road; a way; a path…" comes "From Nos. 1036; 4771", that is choh 辵 or 辶 "Walking. The 162nd Radical" and sheo 首 "The head. A chief; a leader; first. The 185th Radical."
Mathews' 1164-page dictionary is collated alphabetically according to the Wade-Giles system of romanization (Dunn 1997: 82). It includes two appendices comprising 61 pages. Appendix A has tables including 29 Chinese dynasties, the celestial stems and earthly branches, Chinese calendar, and solar terms. Appendix B gives a list of the 214 Kangxi radicals, a radical-and-stroke index, and, for the dictionary frustrated user, a helpful list of characters having obscure radicals.
Scholars agree that Mathews' dictionary closely resembles Herbert A. Giles' (1912) Chinese-English Dictionary, but differ over the degree of copying. Aylmer (1997: 5) says many definitions "are taken, without acknowledgment" from Giles, Wilkinson (2000: 93) says Mathews' is "based on" Giles’ dictionary, and (Kroll 2014) says "heavily indebted" to it.
Mathews occasionally cites Giles' dictionary, such as for the Chinese exonymXiáyōusī 黠憂斯 "Kyrgyz people".
"HSIA 黠 Artful; wily. Clever; sharp. … 黠憂斯 The Kirghiz, lit red-yellow face; name given by the Ouigours, in allusion to the red hair, white complexions, and green eyes of the Kirghiz." (Giles 1912: 523)
"HSIA 黠 Crafty; artful. … [adding a meaning] Transliterating particle. 黠憂斯 ancient name for the Kirghiz:—lit. "red-yellow faces, in allusion to their red hair, white complexion and green eyes." Giles." (Mathews 1941: 374)
There are many cases where Mathews uses Giles' dictionary without citation, such as the Kuí 夔 "legendary dragon-like monster with one foot". The problem began with Giles' Zhuangzi translation (1889: 211-2), "The walrus said to the centipede …", which notes, "'Walrus' is of course an analogue. But for the one leg, the description given by a commentator of the creature mentioned in the text applies with significant exactitude." Giles' dictionary (1892: 821) translates kui as "A one-legged creature; a walrus. Grave; reverential." Mathews' dictionary (1931:538) gives "A one-legged monster; a walrus; Grave, respectful".
As noted above, the 1943 second edition Mathews' Chinese-English Dictionary adds an introduction on Chinese pronunciation and over 15,000 editorial changes. Furthermore, it gives a 5-page List of Syllabic Headings for quick reference, since the original order of syllables "is not strictly alphabetic" (1943: v). Another feature of the new edition is indicating all cases of the unstressed neutral tone.
Reception
Mathews' Chinese-English Dictionary has generally been well received but some authors have criticized lexicographical shortcomings. On one hand, Noel Stock, the University of Toledo scholar of Ezra Pound (who refers to Mathews in The Cantos"Rock-Drill" section), says Mathews' dictionary "is probably known by every westerner who undertakes Chinese, as well as by many Chinese themselves" (1956: 424); but on the other, the American scholar of Chinese literatureDavid R. Knechtges says it "does not always give the correct or current pronunciation for many characters" (1973: 420).
The Australian National University historian of China C. P. Fitzgerald says a user of Mathews' dictionary will be struck by "the deep scholarship, the care and the accuracy of the man who produced this monument of learning". Mathews has a "peculiar kind of immortality" among those who use his work, "one does not say Mathews' Chinese-English Dictionary but simply, 'I must look up that in Mathews'. Mathews, in fact, is a household word to the Sinologist, an indispensable adjunct to his work" (Stock 1956: 425).
The University of California, Berkeley sinologist Edward H. Schafer made detailed criticisms of Mathew's dictionary. First, he used it to illustrate how an ideal dictionary of classical Chinese could "improve on vague, conventional equivalents given in most dictionaries"; while Mathew's gives ch'iung2瓊 "A red stone. Excellent; beautiful." (no. 1245), Schafer (1966:202) translates "rose-gem (cf. rhodonite; rose quartz); carbuncle (possibly an archaic word for "garnet" or "spinel"; overtones of classic, divine and fairy beauty." Second, Schafer (1978) wrote two supplements noting mistranslations and omissions in Mathews, for example (1978: 5), fang舫 "A large boat. Two boats lashed together" (1814) is more accurately translated "rectangular, scowlike barge, usually with deckhouse".
The American sinologist Jerry Norman (1988: 173-4) says that from a lexicographic point of view, "Mathews' dictionary was no advance over Giles'" and its only real advantage was that it was more compact and up-to-date with modern terminology. Otherwise, "it scrambled together without differentiation words from the earliest texts of Chinese literature with contemporary neologisms". However, the "most serious problem" was its treatment of pronunciation. As Yuen Ren Chao's introduction (1943: ix) points out, Mathews' dictionary uses three systems of pronunciation, giving the example (1943: 431) of HSÜAN for current Peking pronunciation in Wade-Giles, SÜAN and Gwoyeu Romatzyh ㄙㄩㄢ in the obsolete (1920) Guoyln zidian 國音字典 system, and Hsüen in the China Inland Mission system. The result of using three transcription systems, says Norman, is that although the entries are in alphabetic order, "it is often frustratingly difficult to find a particular entry unless one is familiar with these various systems of transcription."
The lexicographer Robert Dunn (1997: 82) says that despite the fact that many of Mathews' dictionary entries are outdated or obsolete, some have changed meanings today, and numerous new and current Chinese terms are omitted, the reference work "will doubtless continue to be one of the most widely used by students of Chinese history, literature, thought, and civilization."
Paul W. Kroll, Professor of Chinese at the University of Colorado, says (2014) the most troubling inadequacy of Mathews' dictionary is that "it indiscriminately mixes together vocabulary of all periods", from the ancient Book of Documents to early 20th-century merchant and missionary vocabulary, with the "unhappy result that students infer all terms and meanings to be equally applicable throughout three thousand years of Chinese history". Another problem is the seemingly random arrangement of various meanings for any particular word, leading the user to a "pick-and-choose approach".
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The Concise Dictionary of Spoken Chinese (1947), which was compiled by Yuen Ren Chao and Lien Sheng Yang, made numerous important lexicographic innovations. It was the first Chinese dictionary specifically for spoken Chinese words rather than for written Chinese characters, and one of the first to mark characters for being "free" or "bound" morphemes according to whether or not they can stand alone as a complete and independent utterance.
Lin Yutang's Chinese-English Dictionary of Modern Usage (1972), compiled by the linguist and author Lin Yutang, contains over 8,100 character head entries and 110,000 words and phrases, including many neologisms. Lin's dictionary made two lexicographical innovations, neither of which became widely used. Collation is based on his graphical "Instant Index System" that assigns numbers to Chinese characters based on 33 basic calligraphic stroke patterns. Romanization of Chinese is by Lin's "Simplified National Romanization System", which he developed as a prototype for the Gwoyeu Romatzyh or "National Romanization" system adopted by the Chinese government in 1928. Lin's bilingual dictionary continues to be used in the present day, particularly the free online version that the Chinese University of Hong Kong established in 1999.
The ABC Chinese–English Dictionary or ABC Dictionary (1996), compiled under the chief editorship of John DeFrancis, is the first Chinese dictionary to collate entries in single-sort alphabetical order of pinyin romanization, and a landmark in the history of Chinese lexicography. It was also the first publication in the University of Hawai'i Press's "ABC" series of Chinese dictionaries. They republished the ABC Chinese–English Dictionary in a pocket edition (1999) and desktop reference edition (2000), as well as the expanded ABC Chinese–English Comprehensive Dictionary (2003) and dual ABC Chinese–English/English-Chinese Dictionary (2010). Furthermore, the ABC Dictionary databases have been developed into computer applications such as Wenlin Software for learning Chinese (1997).
References
Anderson, Olov Bertil (1972), A companion volume to R. H. Mathews' Chinese-English dictionary, 3rd ed. 1988, Studentlitteratur.
Astor, Wally G. (1969), "A Content Analysis of two Chinese-English Dictionaries", Journal of the Chinese Language Teachers' Association 4.2: 55-60.
Chow, Tse-tsung (1972), A New Index to Mathews' Chinese-English Dictionary, Based on the "Chung" system for Arranging Chinese Characters 麥氏漢英大字典新索引: ("衷"字七筆檢字法), University of Wisconsin.
Hall, Max (1986), Harvard University Press: A History, Harvard University Press.
Harvard-Yenching Institute (1943), Mathews' Chinese-English Dictionary Revised English Index, Harvard University Press.
Huang, Raymond (1981), Mandarin Pronunciation Explained With Diagrams: A Companion to R. H. Mathews' Chinese-English Dictionary, Hong Kong University Press.
Knechtges, David R. (1973), "[Review of] A Companion to R. H. Mathews' Chinese-English Dictionary", Journal of the American Oriental Society 93.3: 420.
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