Mexican-American folklore refers to the tales and history of Chicano people who live in the United States.
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Mexican-American folklore refers to the tales and history of Chicano people who live in the United States.
People of Spanish descent have been living in the southwestern part of the United States since Mexico had been a colony of the Spanish empire prior to 1821. Mexico gained independence in the aftermath of the Mexican war of independence. Following the Mexican–American War, “most of this area, almost half of Mexico's northern territory, was ceded to the United States, and approximately 80,000 Spanish-Mexican-Indian people suddenly became inhabitants of the United States”. [1] After the war, the United States acquired a huge chunk of land and, as a result all of the Mexican nationals living in the area were now part of the United States. Citizens of the U.S. began flooding into the area to find land to live on. [2]
A well-known example in Chicano folklore is La Llorona, the weeping woman. There are varying different variations of La Llorona. One common account is that she is the ghost of a murderous mother who haunts near water like river banks or lake shores. She is always described as having long hair, down below her waist, and is seen wearing a white gown. [3] As the tale goes, her lover left her with their two children. Angry, she drowned her children in an act of revenge or grief. For that reason, she is doomed to walk the earth forever in search of her children. [4] La Llorona “serves as a cultural allegory, instructing people how to live and act within established social mores”. [5] Her tale is often used as a bedtime story to get children to go to sleep or behave when out in public. Given the popularity of the legend, there are many works done by “folklorists, literary critics, anthropologists, and feminist writers. Children's books, short stories, novels, and films” are just a few of the ways La Llorona has been inscribed into history. [1] As Gloria Anzaldua, a scholar of Chicana cultural and feminist theory, discussed in her article “How to Tame a Wild Tongue”, living on the U.S. side of the border made it difficult for Hispanics to relate to their national identity due to their oppression by Anglo-American colonizers. These colonizing groups forced those of Hispanic descent to speak English at schools and other institutions. Anzaldua stated how she recalled being caught speaking Spanish at recess and got “three licks on the knuckles with a sharp ruler.” [6]
Aztlan is the legendary homeland of the Aztecs. During the 1960s, Chicano peoples living in the greater American Southwest began to use the concept of Aztlan as a way to show their pride in their national identity. [7] It came to be known as a mythical homeland for those of Mexican American heritage; an imaginary place "based on a revival of Mexicanismo". [8] Aztlan was a place that was inclusive to all those of Hispanic descent and encouraged them to support one another and live in prosperity. [9]
Some examples refer to Aztlan in terms of land annexation. After the United States conquered the southwestern part of North America, thousands of Mexicans suddenly became Americans and were encouraged to adopt different cultural traditions. They lived on the same land they always had, but were now considered foreigners. [10] According to De la Torre and Gutierrez, two scholars of Chicano studies based in Mexico, due to the “illegal” immigration of the Mexican Americans back and forth across the border, social links and mutual commitments were able to be maintained. [8] Aztlan is occasionally talked about as the land that the United States took from Mexico after the Mexican–American War. De la Torre and Gutierrez imply that for this reason Aztlan was an attempt for Mexican Americans to regain lost history and identity. [11]
The concept was first seen in El plan de Aztlan adopted at the National Chicano Youth Liberation Conference, held in Denver, Colorado in 1969. The manifesto itself was based on a poem by Alberto Alurista who pushed for it to become the central theme of the conference. [8] The plan brought together community and cultural activists from across the southern United States. It inspired the Chicano population of America to become more aware and self-determined during their struggle for equality. Aztlan would soon become ingrained in the Chicano movement as an important political and spiritual symbol. [12]
Today most of the Mexican folklore, aside from the more popular folklore stories, including La Llorona, is based in cultural identity. Folklore offers a means of reconciling split loyalties insofar as it often deals with very real problems, thus lessening tensions. [13] This relates to tension between retaining Mexican roots and completely assimilating to the American way of life. Examples of this can be as simple as speaking English opposed to Spanish in public, or as serious as identifying as American rather than a Chicano. This inner conflict of choosing between identities can lead to a loss of culture. In today's society, many Mexican nationals traveling from Mexico to the US struggle with these problems of identification. Some folklore stories told today, for example The Bracero (Mexican Agricultural Worker), reflect this struggle of identity. This story revolves around a young Mexican man who, during WWII, came to the US for farm work under the Bracero program. Throughout the story he finds himself in awkward situations where he must act more American or more Mexican. (Though the stories themselves revolve around humorous behavior that is not culturally accurate within the context of the Bracero program. [14] )
Another type of folklore that Mexican American culture presents resembles that of Robin Hood. An example would be the story of Tiburcio Vasquez. He was regarded as a proud figure who resisted social domination and fought to maintain and preserve his culture. [1] The story is based around his life in California where, after being involved in a murder case, he lived a life constantly on the run. Although the claim to his involvement was unfounded, he knew he wouldn't be treated justly if he returned home, so he survived as a thief. Similarly to Robin Hood, Vasquez maintained a 'steal from the rich, give to the poor' mentality, for example, “One source refers to his captives as hog tied.” [1] Although on the run, he also flirted with many women as he moved from city to city. Considered a legend of Mexican folklore, his stories have a theme wider than entertainment or crime. They comment on resistance to unjust authority and discrimination. Stories like Vasquez's have influenced attitudes and behaviors of Mexican men and women even today. They understand stories like these bring hope to their communities when dominant social groups exercise primary control. [15]
Over time, these stories have evolved. They may keep to the same narrative, but the use and interpretation of these stories has undoubtedly changed in modern times. A great example of this evolution is the Black Legend (Leyenda negra). This folk story gives an origin of the belief that Spanish people are inherently bad and cruel. This idea has evolved with the story itself and is now used to explains the rude way Anglo Americans treat Spanish descent people, specifically Mexican Americans. [16] This story, or at least its name, has since been used as a reference to anti-Latino bias by the 2020 film La Leyenda Negra .
The most influential and significant figure to Mexican and Chicano women overall is the La Virgen de Guadalupe (Our Lady of Guadalupe). Known as the Virgin Mary, she represents the ideal woman in the Mexican culture. Although she is the preeminent representation of womanhood, she has since become an icon for women's subjugation and oppression. [17] As the catholic faith is a driving force within the Mexican American community, figures like the Virgin Mary hold very high and relevant importance. More importantly, she is one of the few figures of importance to the Chicana movement that is female. Being female, the Virgin Mary can therefore connect with all Mexican American women, as seen in Ruiz's work 'From Out of the Shadows'. [18] Some of the values upheld and reflected by the Virgin Mary include faith, strength, family, and independence. As the Chicana movement moves forward, the ability to fall back on the values of the Virgin Mary are considered and trusted to be able to overcome future barriers. [19]
Vicki Ruiz, a professor of History and Chicano/Latino studies at the University of California Irvine, entails the way matriarchs or Mexican families pass on their values to their daughters based on those encouraged by the virgin Mary. She also comments on having the actual Virgin Mary present in the home and its importance to the entire family. Her presence in the home serves as a place of worship as well as a reminder to act accordingly. Ruiz also entails how the Guadalupe acts as a source of independence for women. Young women and girls in the Mexican American culture use this idea to grow and establish themselves outside the family and within their communities. Chicana feminist groups also use the idea of independence to separate themselves from the wave of the Chicano movement. Both look to the Guadalupe for strength and belief in their cause. [20]
Chicano or Chicana is an ethnic identity for Mexican Americans who have a non-Anglo self-image, embracing their Mexican Native ancestry. Chicano was originally a classist and racist slur used toward low-income Mexicans that was reclaimed in the 1940s among youth who belonged to the Pachuco and Pachuca subculture. In the 1960s, Chicano was widely reclaimed in the building of a movement toward political empowerment, ethnic solidarity, and pride in being of indigenous descent. Chicano developed its own meaning separate from Mexican American identity. Youth in barrios rejected cultural assimilation into the mainstream American culture and embraced their own identity and worldview as a form of empowerment and resistance. The community forged an independent political and cultural movement, sometimes working alongside the Black power movement.
Sandra Cisneros is an American writer. She is best known for her first novel, The House on Mango Street (1983), and her subsequent short story collection, Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories (1991). Her work experiments with literary forms that investigate emerging subject positions, which Cisneros herself attributes to growing up in a context of cultural hybridity and economic inequality that endowed her with unique stories to tell. She is the recipient of numerous awards, including a National Endowment for the Arts Fellowship, was awarded one of 25 new Ford Foundation Art of Change fellowships in 2017, and is regarded as a key figure in Chicano literature.
Gloria Evangelina Anzaldúa was an American scholar of Chicana feminism, cultural theory, and queer theory. She loosely based her best-known book, Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (1987), on her life growing up on the Mexico–Texas border and incorporated her lifelong experiences of social and cultural marginalization into her work. She also developed theories about the marginal, in-between, and mixed cultures that develop along borders, including on the concepts of Nepantla, Coyoxaulqui imperative, new tribalism, and spiritual activism. Her other notable publications include This Bridge Called My Back: Writings by Radical Women of Color (1981), co-edited with Cherríe Moraga.
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Yolanda Margarita López was an American painter, printmaker, educator, and film producer. She was known for her Chicana feminist works focusing on the experiences of Mexican-American women, often challenging the ethnic stereotypes associated with them. Lopez was recognized for her series of paintings which re-imagined the image of the Virgen de Guadalupe. Her work is held in several public collections including the Smithsonian American Art Museum, the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, and the Los Angeles County Museum of Art.
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Mexican American literature is literature written by Mexican Americans in the United States. Although its origins can be traced back to the sixteenth century, the bulk of Mexican American literature dates from post-1848 and the United States annexation of large parts of Mexico in the wake of the Mexican–American War. Today, as a part of American literature in general, this genre includes a vibrant and diverse set of narratives, prompting critics to describe it as providing "a new awareness of the historical and cultural independence of both northern and southern American hemispheres". Chicano literature is an aspect of Mexican American literature.
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Delilah Montoya is a contemporary American artist and educator who was born in Fort Worth, Texas, and was raised in Omaha, Nebraska, by her Anglo-American father and Latina mother. She earned her BA, MA and MFA from the University of New Mexico. Her art is noted for its exploration of Chicana identity and for innovative printmaking and photographic processes. She is also noted for her use of mixed-media installations and often incorporates iconic religious symbols in her pieces. Montoya attributes the politicization of her work to the formative influence of her upbringing, within the environment that afforded her exposure to pivotal social movements including the Brown Berets, the Civil Rights Movement, and the plight of Mexican migrant workers. Montoya divides her time between Albuquerque and Houston. She taught at the University of New Mexico, Institute of American Indian Arts and California State University before accepting her current position at the University of Houston. She was a 2008 Artadia awardee.
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Chicano literature is an aspect of Mexican-American literature that emerged from the cultural consciousness developed in the Chicano Movement. Chicano literature formed out of the political and cultural struggle of Chicana/os to develop a political foundation and identity that rejected Anglo-American hegemony. This literature embraced the pre-Columbian roots of Mexican-Americans, especially those who identify as Chicana/os.
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