Mexicans in Omaha, Nebraska

Last updated

Mexicans in Omaha are people living in Omaha, Nebraska, United States who have citizenship or ancestral connections to the country Mexico. They have contributed to the economic, social and cultural well-being of Omaha for more than a century. Mexicans, or Latino people identified incorrectly as being from Mexico, have been accounted for in the history of Omaha, Nebraska since 1900. The entire Latino population of Omaha increased ninety percent between 1990 and 1997. [1]

Contents

Mexican-Americans in Omaha have been extensively studied since at least the late 1920s. [2] In 1998 a Mexican immigrant family in Omaha was featured in a Washington Post article. The article noted reluctance by some immigrants to assimilate, in terms of their thinking they had to give up their language or culture. Studies since then have noted that Latino children, like many immigrant children, have adapted more readily to the United States, but also like many immigrant groups, are proud to maintain traditions.

History

The presence of Mexicans in Omaha was documented to the beginning of the city in 1854, and the first permanent residents arrived with the railroads in 1860. [3]

1900 was the beginning of the first large wave of Mexicans immigrating to the U.S. [4] According to the University of Nebraska at Omaha, around 1900, five Mexican-born residents lived in Omaha, and by 1910 there were twenty-nine. In 1920 there were 682 Mexicans in Omaha; in 1923 there were about 1,000. They lived in South Omaha, close to the three packing plants and the stockyards where many worked. [5] In 1950 the population of Mexicans in Douglas County was 450. [6] The loss of jobs in the Great Depression drove many Mexicans back to Mexico, but approximately 900 stayed in Omaha. [7]

Struggles

In February 1915, Omaha Police Department Detective Tom Ring was killed while investigating a report of boxcar thieves at a rooming house at 15th and Chicago. Based on the idea the shooter was Mexican, the police department proceeded to round up and jail every Mexican they could find in Omaha. The main suspects were Jose Gonzalez and Juan Parral. Gonzalez escaped Omaha only to be shot dead under dubious circumstances outside Scribner, Nebraska. His companion Parral was captured, but was tried and sentenced under unrelated charges. After serving a few years in the Nebraska State Penitentiary, Parral was deported to Mexico. Neither man was ever convicted of the crimes they were accused of. [8]

Communities

In the early decades of the 1900s, Mexican families established themselves in colonias [9] next to the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy Railroad depot south of Little Italy and Little Bohemia. The depot was called Gibson Station, and was located at South First and Hascal Streets near the Missouri River. [10] Near South 72nd and Q Streets there was another barrio where Mexican families lived in railroad cars next to the Union Pacific-Santa Fe station. More Mexican families lived among Italian, Polish, Hungarian, and Czech immigrants. [11] Much of the community is said to have lived in the Brown Park neighborhood, as well. [12]

Other Mexican communities were near the Burlington Train Station around South Sixth Street; in Carville, near Gibson in South Omaha along the Missouri River, "where most lived in railroad cars on Burlington Railroad property", and along Spring Street. J.B. Hernández, a railroad worker, was the acknowledged leader of Carville. His family was viewed as the "aristocrats of Carville". [13]

There was also a large community east of the Missouri River in Council Bluffs. The largest concentration of Mexicans and Mexican Americans in Omaha lived near the packing houses and Union Stockyards of South Omaha. [14]

Today the majority of Mexicans and Mexican-Americans live in South Omaha, also called South O. A strong Mexican-American presence thrives there, with numerous public murals and exhibitions of Mexican culture throughout the community. Along with a variety of businesses, churches and community organizations, the area features El Museo Latino. It hosts four visits per year of the Mobile Mexican Consultant of Denver. [15] In 1998, the community was estimated to have 20,000 Latino families. [16]

Workforce

According to one study about the period 1900–1930, "Early censuses report few Mexicans, and existing statistics are ambiguous. Mostly, Mexicans were accounted as 'floaters,' shifting jobs between meat packing plants, section hands on the railroads, and agricultural laborers..." [17]

Jobs in agriculture, packing houses, and railroads drew Mexican laborers to Omaha. [18] Shortly after the beginning of World War I, the packing houses and Union Stockyards hired Mexicans as strikebreakers during a labor shortage. After the strike broke, several hundred Mexican workers stayed in Omaha. [19] According to the Nebraska State Historical Society, there are a few remaining Mexican elders who came to Omaha through Kansas City as railroad workers for the Union Pacific and the BNSF Railway. Across Omaha there "are Mexican Americans whose grandfathers or other male relatives worked as railroad section-hands." [20]

In Omaha in 1924 the average packinghouse paid $3.36 a day, [21] and in 1928 ten railroad companies employed between 800 and 1000 Mexicans in the winter, and less than 250 in the summer. [22] In the 1930s many Mexicans in Omaha traveled back and forth from western Nebraska to work in the agriculture industry. [23]

Religion

A Roman Catholic church called Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe was founded in Omaha in 1919., [24] [25] and has been the "main pivot of the Hispanic community in Omaha, the state and neighboring counties in Iowa across the Missouri River." Its first home was in a rented room above a baker's shop. [26]

During the 1960s both Catholic and Protestant congregations encouraged Mexican Americans in Omaha "to move forward with a more proactive role in claiming their identity and place in the community." [27]

Crime

In the 1930s crime among Mexican Americans ranked "higher than any other immigrant class born in the city." Researchers attributed this to poverty, language barriers, police politics and the lack of political representation. [28] Mexican Americans in Omaha were also the target of racial tension, with one period report finding, "at social gatherings of the schools and churches, Mexican children were spat upon and called "greasers" by other children." [29]

Present

Population

In the early 1970s a population survey conducted by the Lutheran Ministries of Omaha estimated that there were 6,490 Latinos in Omaha, with two-thirds of the population coming from Mexico. [30] A 1978 study found that Mexican Americans in Omaha felt particular satisfaction with their lifestyle and the services that they received from the U.S. government. The same study found civic engagement high among the population. While study participants felt like they generally were not welcomed throughout their community, they were accepted. [31]

Between 1980 and 1990, the Latino population in the Midwest increased by 35.2%. [32] In 1990 Latinos accounted for 2.9% of the population of Omaha with the majority Mexican. [33]

Nebraska's Latino population nearly doubled from 1990 to 2005, largely due to increases in towns with meatpacking operations located within a two hundred mile radius of Omaha. While most of that population is Mexican, the numbers are not available. [34]

Religion

According to the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Omaha, 74 percent of Mexicans and their American-born children in Omaha are Catholic. The streets of South Omaha, particularly the South Omaha Main Street Historic District, are packed with religious celebrations throughout the year, including the Festival of the Virgin of Guadalupe, the Day of the Dead and many other holidays in the Catholic religious calendar. [35] According to another report, "Mexicans [in Omaha] celebrate Holy Week, one of the most important events in the Catholic liturgy, in remarkable public spectacles." [36]

Culture

Today South Omaha is also home to El Museo Latino, located at 4701½ South 25th Street. Dedicated to Latino arts, the museum includes local, regional, national, and international exhibits. In addition to providing school tours and sponsoring a performing dance group, the museum features exhibits, family activities, art and cultural classes, and special events. It is a local repository for copies of the Omaha-related materials collected through the "Mexican American Traditions in Nebraska" project of the Nebraska State Historical Society. [37] Nebraskans for Peace is another organization that seeks to advocate and assist Mexican Americans and Mexicans in Omaha. [38]

Assimilation

In the 1970s demographers first starting noticing the reluctance of Omaha's Mexican-American population to assimilate into American culture. [39] Morality and values, food, language, and cultural ties have all been cited as important attributes of Mexican culture that recent immigrants and long-time Mexican Americans in Omaha, Nebraska want to maintain. [40] The lack of participation of Mexican-Americans in Omaha in the administration and reform of health care has also been noted as further evidence of the absence of desire to assimilate. [41]

Mexican-Americans have begun to exert political influence in Omaha. Spanish-language newspapers sold in Omaha include Nuestro Mundo, El Perico, La Vision Latina, and El Sol de las Americas. [42]

The Mexican Consulate was located in Omaha at 3552 Dodge Street. [43] [44] A 2007 neo-Nazi rally in Omaha drew 65 participants to a protest outside the consulate. Thousands were involved in counter-protests, as well as events celebrating the diversity of the city. [45] The Mexican Consulate has since moved to 7444 Farnam Street. [46]

Notable Mexican Americans from Omaha

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nebraska</span> U.S. state

Nebraska is a triply landlocked state in the Midwestern region of the United States. It borders South Dakota to the north; Iowa to the east and Missouri to the southeast, both across the Missouri River; Kansas to the south; Colorado to the southwest; and Wyoming to the west. Nebraska is the 16th largest state by land area, with just over 77,220 square miles (200,000 km2). With a population of over 1.9 million, it is the 37th most populous state and the 7th least densely populated. Its capital is Lincoln, and its most populous city is Omaha, which is on the Missouri River. Nebraska was admitted into the United States in 1867, two years after the end of the American Civil War. The Nebraska Legislature is unlike any other American legislature in that it is unicameral, and its members are elected without any official reference to political party affiliation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Omaha, Nebraska</span> Largest city in Nebraska, United States

Omaha is the most populous city in the U.S. state of Nebraska and the county seat of Douglas County. It is located in the Midwestern United States along the Missouri River, about 10 mi (15 km) north of the mouth of the Platte River. The nation's 40th-most populous city, Omaha had a population of 486,051 as of the 2020 census. It is the anchor of the eight-county Omaha–Council Bluffs metropolitan area, which extends into Iowa and is the 58th-largest metro area in the United States, with a population of 967,604. Furthermore, the greater Omaha–Council Bluffs–Fremont combined statistical area had 1,004,771 residents in 2020.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Washington County, Nebraska</span> County in Nebraska, United States

Washington County is a county in the U.S. state of Nebraska. As of the 2020 United States Census, the population was 20,865. Its county seat is Blair.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stewart County, Georgia</span> County in Georgia, United States

Stewart County is a county located in the west central portion of the U.S. state of Georgia. As of the 2020 census, the population was 5,314. The county seat is Lumpkin. The county was created on December 23, 1830.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Columbus, Nebraska</span> City in and county seat of Platte County, Nebraska, United States

Columbus is a city in and the county seat of Platte County, in the state of Nebraska in the Midwestern United States. The population was 24,028 at the 2020 census, making it the 10th most populous city in Nebraska.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mexican Americans</span> Americans of Mexican ancestry

Mexican Americans are Americans of Mexican heritage. In 2022, Mexican Americans comprised 11.2% of the US population and 58.9% of all Hispanic and Latino Americans. In 2019, 71% of Mexican Americans were born in the United States; they make up 53% of the total population of foreign-born Hispanic Americans and 25% of the total foreign-born population. Chicano is a term used by some to describe the unique identity held by Mexican-Americans. The United States is home to the second-largest Mexican community in the world, behind only Mexico. Most Mexican Americans reside in the Southwest, with over 60% of Mexican Americans living in the states of California and Texas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hispanic and Latino Americans</span> Demographic of Americans

Hispanic and Latino Americans are Americans of full or partial Spanish and/or Latin American background, culture, or family origin. These demographics include all Americans who identify as Hispanic or Latino regardless of race. As of 2020, the Census Bureau estimated that there were almost 65.3 million Hispanics and Latinos living in the United States and its territories.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mexican Repatriation</span> Mass repatriation during the Great Depression

The Mexican Repatriation was the repatriation, deportation, and expulsion of Mexicans and Mexican Americans from the United States during the Great Depression between 1929 and 1939. Estimates of how many were repatriated, deported, or expelled range from 300,000 to 2 million.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Race and ethnicity in the United States</span>

The United States has a racially and ethnically diverse population. At the federal level, race and ethnicity have been categorized separately. The most recent United States census recognized five racial categories, as well as people who belong to two or more of the racial categories. The United States also recognizes the broader notion of ethnicity. The 2000 census and 2010 American Community Survey inquired about the "ancestry" of residents, while the 2020 census allowed people to enter their "origins". The Census Bureau also classified respondents as either Hispanic or Latino, identifying as an ethnicity, which comprises the minority group in the nation.

Sheelytown was a historic ethnic neighborhood in South Omaha, Nebraska, USA with populations of Irish, Polish and other first generation immigrants. Located north of the Union Stockyards, it was bounded by Edward Creighton Boulevard on the north, Vinton Street on the south, South 24th Street to the east, and 35th Street to the west. Sheelytown was named for the Sheely Brothers Packing Houses that were located in the area. Sheelytown was annexed by Omaha in 1887. The Omaha Quartermaster Depot was built just east of the community across the Union Pacific tracks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">El Museo Latino</span> United States historic place

El Museo Latino is a museum featuring Latino and Hispanic art and history that is located at 4701 South 25th Street in South Omaha, Nebraska. Established in 1993, by Magdalena García, it is the first Latino art and history museum and cultural center in the Midwest.

Poles in Omaha, Nebraska arrived relatively early in the city's history. The first Polish immigrants came in the 1870s, and the community grew past 1000 in the late 1890s. By the 1930s there were 10,000 of Polish descent, and Omaha claimed the largest such community of the Great Plains. According to the 2000 United States Census, Omaha had a total population of 390,112 residents, of whom 18,447 claimed Polish ancestry. The city's Polish community was historically based in several ethnic enclaves throughout South Omaha, including Little Poland and Sheelytown, first dominated by Irish immigrants.

The Irish in Omaha, Nebraska have constituted a major ethnic group throughout the history of the city, and continue to serve as important religious and political leaders. They compose a large percentage of the local population.

Various ethnic groups in Omaha, Nebraska have lived in the city since its organization by Anglo-Americans in 1854. Native Americans of various nations lived in the Omaha territory for centuries before European arrival, and some stayed in the area. The city was founded by white Anglo-Saxon Protestants from neighboring Council Bluffs, Iowa. However, since the first settlement, substantial immigration from all of Europe, migration by African Americans from the Deep South and various ethnic groups from the Eastern United States, and new waves of more recent immigrants from Mexico and Africa have added layers of complexity to the workforce, culture, religious and social fabric of the city.

The Gibson Bend of the Missouri River is a meander located in Pottawattamie County, Iowa and Douglas County, Nebraska, located at 41°11′15″N95°55′15″W. The Gibson neighborhood is a community area in Omaha, Nebraska abutting the Gibson Bend.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Mexican Americans in Houston</span>

The city of Houston has significant populations of Mexican Americans, Mexican immigrants, and Mexican citizen expatriates. Houston residents of Mexican origin make up the oldest Hispanic ethnic group in Houston, and Jessi Elana Aaron and José Esteban Hernández, authors of "Quantitative evidence for contact-induced accommodation: Shifts in /s/ reduction patterns in Salvadoran Spanish in Houston," referring to another large Latino group in Houston, stated that as of 2007 it was the most "well-established" Hispanophone ethnic group there. Houston is the third city for Mexican immigrants after Chicago and Los Angeles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Mexican Americans in Los Angeles</span>

Mexican Americans have lived in Los Angeles since the original Pobladores, the 44 original settlers and 4 soldiers who founded the city in 1781. People of Mexican descent make up 31.9% of Los Angeles residents, and 32% of Los Angeles County residents.

This is a Mexican American bibliography. This list consists of books, and journal articles, about Mexican Americans, Chicanos, and their history and culture. The list includes works of literature whose subject matter is significantly about Mexican Americans and the Chicano/a experience. This list does not include works by Mexican American writers which do not address the topic, such as science texts by Mexican American writers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mexicans in Chicago</span>

There is a very large Mexican American community in the Chicago metropolitan area. Illinois, and Chicago's Mexican American community is the largest outside of the Western United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Mexican Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth</span>

There is a rapidly growing Mexican-American population in the Dallas-Fort Worth area.

References

  1. ↑ Lopez, David A. (2000). "Latinos in Omaha: An Examination of Socioeconomic Measures for Latinos in South Omaha." Archived 2007-09-17 at the Wayback Machine Statistical Brief No. 12. The Julian Samora Research Institute at Michigan State University.
  2. ↑ T. Earl Sullenger, (1929) "The Mexican Population of Omaha," Journal of Applied Sociology, VIII. May–June. p. 289.
  3. ↑ Arbelaez, Maria S. (2000) "Good Friday in Omaha, Nebraska: A Mexican Celebration," In National Association of African American Studies & National Association of Hispanic and Latino Studies 2000 Literature Monograph Series. Proceedings (Culture Section) (Houston, TX, February 21–26, 2000). p 9. Retrieved 9/5/07.
  4. ↑ McWilliams, C. and Meier, M.(1990) North from Mexico: The Spanish-Speaking People of the United States. . New York: Praeger.
  5. ↑ Grajeda, R. (n.d.) Mexicans in Nebraska [usurped] Nebraska State Historical Society. Retrieved 3/12/07.
  6. ↑ Wheeler, W. (1975) An Almanac of Nebraska: Nationality, Ethnic, and Racial Groups. Omaha, NE: Park Bromwell Press.
  7. ↑ Arbelaez, Maria S. (2000) "Good Friday in Omaha, Nebraska: A Mexican Celebration," In National Association of African American Studies & National Association of Hispanic and Latino Studies 2000 Literature Monograph Series. Proceedings (Culture Section) (Houston, TX, February 21–26, 2000). p 10. Retrieved 9/5/07.
  8. ↑ de la Garza, Michael. (Spring 2004) "The Lynching of Juan Gonzalez," Nebraska History Magazine, Vol. 85, No. 1.
  9. ↑ Valdés, D.N. (2000) Barrios Nortenos: St. Paul and Midwestern Mexican Communities in the Twentieth Century. University of Texas Press. p 33.
  10. ↑ T. Earl Sullenger, (1929) "The Mexican Population of Omaha," Journal of Applied Sociology, VIII. May–June. p. 291.
  11. ↑ T. Earl Sullenger, (1929) "The Mexican Population of Omaha," Journal of Applied Sociology, VIII. May–June. p. 287.
  12. ↑ Thiele, S., Jordan, T.E., Lopez, D.A., et al. (2001) The Latino Experience in Omaha. E. Mellen Press. p 14.
  13. ↑ Valdés, D.N. (2000) Barrios Nortenos: St. Paul and Midwestern Mexican Communities in the Twentieth Century. University of Texas Press. p 78.
  14. ↑ Valdés, D.N. (2000) Barrios Nortenos: St. Paul and Midwestern Mexican Communities in the Twentieth Century. University of Texas Press. p 33.
  15. ↑ Arbelaez, Maria S. (2000) "Good Friday in Omaha, Nebraska: A Mexican Celebration," In National Association of African American Studies & National Association of Hispanic and Latino Studies 2000 Literature Monograph Series. Proceedings (Culture Section) (Houston, TX, February 21–26, 2000). p 13. Retrieved 9/5/07.
  16. ↑ Arbelaez, Maria S. (2000) "Good Friday in Omaha, Nebraska: A Mexican Celebration," In National Association of African American Studies & National Association of Hispanic and Latino Studies 2000 Literature Monograph Series. Proceedings (Culture Section) (Houston, TX, February 21–26, 2000). p 20. Retrieved 9/5/07.
  17. ↑ Arbelaez, M. (2006) Religion and Community: Mexican Americans in South Omaha (1900–1980). Archived 2010-03-26 at the Wayback Machine OLLAS Special Report No. 4. Omaha, NE: Office of Latino/Latin American Studies at the University of Nebraska at Omaha.
  18. ↑ T. Earl Sullenger, (1929) "The Mexican Population of Omaha," Journal of Applied Sociology, VIII. May–June. p. 289.
  19. ↑ Larsen, L. & Cotrell, B. (1997). The Gate City: A history of Omaha. University of Nebraska Press. P 163.
  20. ↑ Grajeda, R. (n.d.) Mexicans in Nebraska [usurped] Nebraska State Historical Society. Retrieved 3/12/07.
  21. ↑ Valdés, D.N. (2000) Barrios Nortenos: St. Paul and Midwestern Mexican Communities in the Twentieth Century. University of Texas Press. p 82.
  22. ↑ Valdés, D.N. (2000) Barrios Nortenos: St. Paul and Midwestern Mexican Communities in the Twentieth Century. University of Texas Press. p 81.
  23. ↑ Arbelaez, Maria S. (2000) "Good Friday in Omaha, Nebraska: A Mexican Celebration," In National Association of African American Studies & National Association of Hispanic and Latino Studies 2000 Literature Monograph Series. Proceedings (Culture Section) (Houston, TX, February 21–26, 2000). p 11. Retrieved 9/5/07.
  24. ↑ Larsen, L. & Cotrell, B. (1997). The Gate City: A history of Omaha. University of Nebraska Press. P 163.
  25. ↑ "Juvencia Reyes" [usurped] , Nebraska State Historical Society. Retrieved 9/1/07.
  26. ↑ Arbelaez, Maria S. (2000) "Good Friday in Omaha, Nebraska: A Mexican Celebration," In National Association of African American Studies & National Association of Hispanic and Latino Studies 2000 Literature Monograph Series. Proceedings (Culture Section) (Houston, TX, February 21–26, 2000). p 9. Retrieved 9/5/07.
  27. ↑ Arbelaez, M. (2006) Religion and Community: Mexican Americans in South Omaha (1900–1980). Archived 2010-03-26 at the Wayback Machine OLLAS Special Report No. 4. Omaha, NE: Office of Latino/Latin American Studies at the University of Nebraska at Omaha.
  28. ↑ Valdés, D.N. (2000) Barrios Nortenos: St. Paul and Midwestern Mexican Communities in the Twentieth Century. University of Texas Press. p 59.
  29. ↑ Valdés, D.N. (2000) Barrios Nortenos: St. Paul and Midwestern Mexican Communities in the Twentieth Century. University of Texas Press. p 63.
  30. ↑ Arbelaez, M. (2006) Religion and Community: Mexican Americans in South Omaha (1900–1980). Archived 2010-03-26 at the Wayback Machine OLLAS Special Report No. 4. Omaha, NE: Office of Latino/Latin American Studies at the University of Nebraska at Omaha.
  31. ↑ Comer, J.C. (1978) "'Street-Level' Bureaucracy and Political Support: Some Findings on Mexican Americans," Urban Affairs Review, 14(2). pp 207–227.
  32. ↑ Lopez, David A. (2000). "Latinos in Omaha: An Examination of Socioeconomic Measures for Latinos in South Omaha." Archived 2007-09-17 at the Wayback Machine Statistical Brief No. 12. The Julian Samora Research Institute at Michigan State University.
  33. ↑ Lopez, David A. (2000). "Latinos in Omaha: An Examination of Socioeconomic Measures for Latinos in South Omaha." Archived 2007-09-17 at the Wayback Machine Statistical Brief No. 12. The Julian Samora Research Institute at Michigan State University.
  34. ↑ Bacon, D. (2005) "And the Winner Is... Immigration reform on the killing floor. Archived 2007-10-08 at the Wayback Machine The American Prospect. 10/23/05.
  35. ↑ Arbelaez, M. (2006) Religion and Community: Mexican Americans in South Omaha (1900–1980). Archived 2010-03-26 at the Wayback Machine OLLAS Special Report No. 4. Omaha, NE: Office of Latino/Latin American Studies at the University of Nebraska at Omaha.
  36. ↑ Arbelaez, M. (2000) "Good Friday in Omaha, Nebraska: A Mexican Celebration," in National Association of African American Studies & National Association of Hispanic and Latino Studies 2000 Literature Monograph Series. Proceedings (Culture Section) (Houston, TX, February 21–26, 2000). ERIC # ED454016. Retrieved 7/17/07.
  37. ↑ (1998) "Resource Guide" [usurped] . Nebraska State Historical Society. Retrieved 7/17/07.
  38. ↑ (nd) "History", Nebraskans for Peace. Retrieved 7/17/07.
  39. ↑ Comer, J. (1978) ""Street-Level" Bureaucracy and Political Support: Some Findings on Mexican Americans", Urban Affairs Review. 14(2) p 207, 210-213, 225-227.
  40. ↑ Branigin, W. (1998) "Immigrants Shunning Idea of Assimilation," Washington Post. 5/25/07. Retrieved 7/17/07.
  41. ↑ Steinman, M. (1976) "Low-income and minority group representation in administrative processes: Mexican-American participation in health care services," Urban Affairs Quarterly. 11(4) p 523-544.
  42. ↑ "Mexican America Commission." Archived 2006-09-28 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 9/1/07.
  43. ↑ "Mexico", United States Department of State. Retrieved 7/17/07.
  44. ↑ "Mexico", CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 5/17/08.
  45. ↑ Ruggles, R. and Cole, K. (2007) "Huge police presence subdues Nazi rally" [ permanent dead link ], Omaha World-Herald . September 2, 2007. Retrieved 5/13/08.
  46. ↑ "CONSULADO". consulmex.sre.gob.mx. Retrieved 2019-08-26.

Bibliography

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.