Parabrachial nuclei

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Parabrachial nuclei
Details
Part of Brainstem
Parts Medial parabrachial nucleus, lateral parabrachial nucleus, subparabrachial nucleus
Identifiers
Latin nuclei parabrachiales
MeSH D065823
NeuroNames 1927
NeuroLex ID nlx_23647
TA98 A14.1.05.439
TA2 5945
FMA 84024
Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy

The parabrachial nuclei, also known as the parabrachial complex, are a group of nuclei in the dorsolateral pons that surrounds the superior cerebellar peduncle as it enters the brainstem from the cerebellum. They are named from the Latin term for the superior cerebellar peduncle, the brachium conjunctivum. In the human brain, the expansion of the superior cerebellar peduncle expands the parabrachial nuclei, which form a thin strip of grey matter over most of the peduncle. The parabrachial nuclei are typically divided along the lines suggested by Baxter and Olszewski in humans, into a medial parabrachial nucleus and lateral parabrachial nucleus. [1] These have in turn been subdivided into a dozen subnuclei: the superior, dorsal, ventral, internal, external and extreme lateral subnuclei; the lateral crescent and subparabrachial nucleus (Kolliker-Fuse nucleus) along the ventrolateral margin of the lateral parabrachial complex; and the medial and external medial subnuclei [2] [3]

Contents

Anatomy

Structure

The main parabrachial nuclei are the medial parabrachial nucleus, the lateral parabrachial nucleus, and the subparabrachial nucleus. They are located at the junction of the midbrain and pons. [4]

Medial parabrachial nucleus

The medial parabrachial nucleus is relays information from the taste area of the solitary nucleus to the ventral posteromedial nucleus of the thalamus. [4]

Lateral parabrachial nucleus

The lateral parabrachial nucleus receives information from the caudal solitary tract and transmits signals mainly to the medial hypothalamus but also to the lateral hypothalamus and many of the nuclei targeted by the medial parabrachial nucleus. [4]

Subparabrachial nucleus

The subparabrachial nucleus (also known as the Kölliker-Fuse nucleus, or diffuse reticular nucleus) regulates the breathing rate. It receives signals from the caudal, cardio-respiratory part of the solitary nucleus and sends signals to the lower medulla oblongata, the spinal cord, the amygdala and the lateral hypothalamus. [4]

Afferents and efferents

The parabrachial nuclei receive visceral afferent information from a variety of sources in the brainstem, including much from the solitary nucleus, which brings taste information and information about the remainder of the body. [5]

The external, dorsal, internal and superior lateral subnuclei also receive input from the spinal and trigeminal dorsal horn, mainly concerned with pain and other visceral sensations. [6]

Outputs from the parabrachial nucleus originate from specific subnuclei and target forebrain sites involved in autonomic regulation, including the lateral hypothalamic area, ventromedial, dorsomedial, and arcuate hypothalamic nuclei, the median and lateral preoptic nuclei, the substantia innominate, the ventroposterior parvicellular and intralaminar thalamic nuclei, the central nucleus of the amygdala, and the insular and infralimbic cortex. [2]

The subparabrachialnucleus and lateral crescent send efferents to the nucleus of the solitary tract, ventrolateral medulla, and spinal cord, where they target many respiratory and autonomic cell groups. [3] Many of these same brainstem and forebrain areas send efferents back to the parabrachial nucleus as well. [7] [5]

Function

Arousal

Many subsets of neurons in the parabrachial complex that target specific forebrain or brainstem cell groups contain specific neuropeptides, [8] and appear to carry out distinct functions. For example, a population of neurons in the external lateral parabrachial subnucleus that contain the neurotransmitter calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) appears to be critical for relaying information about hypoxia (low blood oxygen) and/or hypercapnia (high blood CO2) to forebrain sites to “wake up the brain” (arouse) when breathing is inadequate to meet physiological demands during sleep. This resulting “wakefulness drive to breath” contributes to prevention of asphyxia. [9]

Recent data indicate that glutamatergic neurons in the medial and lateral parabrachial nuclei, along with glutamatergic neurons in the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus, provide a critical node in the brainstem for producing a waking state. [10] [11] Lesions of these neurons cause irreversible coma.

Blood sugar control

Other neurons in the superior lateral parabrachial nucleus that contain cholecystokinin have been found to prevent hypoglycemia. [12]

Thermoregulation

Other neurons in the dorsal lateral parabrachial nucleus that contain dynorphin sense skin temperature from spinal afferents, and send that information to neurons in the preoptic area involved in thermoregulation. [13] A study in 2017, has shown this information to be relayed through the lateral parabrachial nucleus rather than the thalamus, which drives thermoregulatory behaviour. [14] [15]

Taste

Parabrachial neurons in rodents that relay taste information to the ventroposterior parvocellular (taste) nucleus of the thalamus are mainly CGRP neurons in the external medial parabrachial nucleus and they project predominantly contralaterally, as well as a smaller number in the ventral lateral nucleus, which project mainly ipsilaterally. [16]

Neurons that mediate the sensation of itching, connect to the parabrachial nucleus by way of glutamatergic spinal projection neurons. This pathway triggers scratching in mice. [17]

Pleasure

The parabrachial nucleus relays satiety and pain-related signals to higher brain regions; when inhibited, this can produce "liking" responses to certain pleasurable stimuli, such as sweet taste. [18]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypothalamus</span> Area of the brain below the thalamus

The hypothalamus is a small part of the vertebrate brain that contains a number of nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus and is part of the limbic system. It forms the basal part of the diencephalon. All vertebrate brains contain a hypothalamus. In humans, it is about the size of an almond.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thalamus</span> Structure within the brain

The thalamus is a large mass of gray matter on the lateral walls of the third ventricle forming the dorsal part of the diencephalon. Nerve fibers project out of the thalamus to the cerebral cortex in all directions, known as the thalamocortical radiations, allowing hub-like exchanges of information. It has several functions, such as the relaying of sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex and the regulation of consciousness, sleep, and alertness.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brainstem</span> Posterior part of the brain, adjoining and structurally continuous

The brainstem is the stalk-like part of the brain that interconnects the cerebrum and diencephalon with the spinal cord. In the human brain, the brainstem is composed of the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata. The midbrain is continuous with the thalamus of the diencephalon through the tentorial notch.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grey column</span>

The grey column refers to a somewhat ridge-shaped mass of grey matter in the spinal cord. This presents as three columns: the anterior grey column, the posterior grey column, and the lateral grey column, all of which are visible in cross-section of the spinal cord.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spinothalamic tract</span> Sensory pathway from the skin to the thalamus

The spinothalamic tract is a part of the anterolateral system or the ventrolateral system, a sensory pathway to the thalamus. From the ventral posterolateral nucleus in the thalamus, sensory information is relayed upward to the somatosensory cortex of the postcentral gyrus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dorsal column–medial lemniscus pathway</span> Sensory spinal pathway

The dorsal column–medial lemniscus pathway (DCML) is a sensory pathway of the central nervous system that conveys sensations of fine touch, vibration, two-point discrimination, and proprioception from the skin and joints. It transmits information from the body to the primary somatosensory cortex in the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe of the brain. The pathway receives information from sensory receptors throughout the body, and carries this in nerve tracts in the white matter of the dorsal column of the spinal cord to the medulla, where it is continued in the medial lemniscus, on to the thalamus and relayed from there through the internal capsule and transmitted to the somatosensory cortex. The name dorsal-column medial lemniscus comes from the two structures that carry the sensory information: the dorsal columns of the spinal cord, and the medial lemniscus in the brainstem.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solitary nucleus</span> Sensory nuclei in medulla oblongata

The solitary nucleus is a series of sensory nuclei forming a vertical column of grey matter in the medulla oblongata of the brainstem. It receives general visceral and/or special visceral inputs from the facial nerve, glossopharyngeal nerve and vagus nerve ; it receives and relays stimuli related to taste and visceral sensation. It sends outputs to various parts of the brain, such as the hypothalamus, thalamus, and reticular formation. Neuron cell bodies of the SN are roughly somatotopically arranged along its length according to function.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marginal nucleus of spinal cord</span>

The marginal nucleus of spinal cord, or posteromarginal nucleus, Rexed lamina I, is located at the most dorsal aspect of the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. The neurons located here receive input primarily from Lissauer's tract and relay information related to pain and temperature sensation. Pain sensation relayed here cannot be modulated, e.g. pain from burning the skin. The axons of neurons contribute to the lateral spinothalamic tract.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Subthalamic nucleus</span> Small lens-shaped nucleus in the brain

The subthalamic nucleus (STN) is a small lens-shaped nucleus in the brain where it is, from a functional point of view, part of the basal ganglia system. In terms of anatomy, it is the major part of the subthalamus. As suggested by its name, the subthalamic nucleus is located ventral to the thalamus. It is also dorsal to the substantia nigra and medial to the internal capsule. It was first described by Jules Bernard Luys in 1865, and the term corpus Luysi or Luys' body is still sometimes used.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reticular formation</span> Spinal trigeminal nucleus

The reticular formation is a set of interconnected nuclei that are located in the brainstem, hypothalamus, and other regions. It is not anatomically well defined, because it includes neurons located in different parts of the brain. The neurons of the reticular formation make up a complex set of networks in the core of the brainstem that extend from the upper part of the midbrain to the lower part of the medulla oblongata. The reticular formation includes ascending pathways to the cortex in the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) and descending pathways to the spinal cord via the reticulospinal tracts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ventrolateral preoptic nucleus</span> Nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus

The ventrolateral preoptic nucleus (VLPO), also known as the intermediate nucleus of the preoptic area (IPA), is a small cluster of neurons situated in the anterior hypothalamus, sitting just above and to the side of the optic chiasm in the brain of humans and other animals. The brain's sleep-promoting nuclei, together with the ascending arousal system which includes components in the brainstem, hypothalamus and basal forebrain, are the interconnected neural systems which control states of arousal, sleep, and transitions between these two states. The VLPO is active during sleep, particularly during non-rapid eye movement sleep, and releases inhibitory neurotransmitters, mainly GABA and galanin, which inhibit neurons of the ascending arousal system that are involved in wakefulness and arousal. The VLPO is in turn innervated by neurons from several components of the ascending arousal system. The VLPO is activated by the endogenous sleep-promoting substances adenosine and prostaglandin D2. The VLPO is inhibited during wakefulness by the arousal-inducing neurotransmitters norepinephrine and acetylcholine. The role of the VLPO in sleep and wakefulness, and its association with sleep disorders – particularly insomnia and narcolepsy – is a growing area of neuroscience research.

The zona incerta (ZI) is a horizontally elongated region of gray matter in the subthalamus below the thalamus. Its connections project extensively over the brain from the cerebral cortex down into the spinal cord.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Superior olivary complex</span> Collection of brainstem nuclei related to hearing

The superior olivary complex (SOC) or superior olive is a collection of brainstem nuclei that is located in pons, functions in multiple aspects of hearing and is an important component of the ascending and descending auditory pathways of the auditory system. The SOC is intimately related to the trapezoid body: most of the cell groups of the SOC are dorsal to this axon bundle while a number of cell groups are embedded in the trapezoid body. Overall, the SOC displays a significant interspecies variation, being largest in bats and rodents and smaller in primates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Median raphe nucleus</span> Brain region having polygonal, fusiform, piriform neurons

The median raphe nucleus, also known as the nucleus raphes medianus (NRM) or superior central nucleus, is a brain region composed of polygonal, fusiform, and piriform neurons, which exists rostral to the nucleus raphes pontis. The MRN is located between the posterior end of the superior cerebellar peduncles and the V. Afferents of the motor nucleus. It is one of two nuclei, the other being the dorsal raphe nucleus (DnR), in the midbrain-pons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gustatory nucleus</span> Rostral part of the solitary nucleus located in the medulla

The gustatory nucleus is the rostral part of the solitary nucleus located in the medulla. The gustatory nucleus is associated with the sense of taste and has two sections, the rostral and lateral regions. A close association between the gustatory nucleus and visceral information exists for this function in the gustatory system, assisting in homeostasis - via the identification of food that might be possibly poisonous or harmful for the body. There are many gustatory nuclei in the brain stem. Each of these nuclei corresponds to three cranial nerves, the facial nerve (VII), the glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), and the vagus nerve (X) and GABA is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in its functionality. All visceral afferents in the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves first arrive in the nucleus of the solitary tract and information from the gustatory system can then be relayed to the thalamus and cortex.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">HSD2 neuron</span>

HSD2 neurons are a small group of neurons in the brainstem which are uniquely sensitive to the mineralocorticosteroid hormone aldosterone, through expression of HSD11B2. They are located within the caudal medulla oblongata, in the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS). HSD2 neurons are activated during a prolonged deficit in body sodium or fluid volume, as occurs after dietary sodium deprivation or during frank hypovolemia. They are also activated by supraphysiologic stimulation of the mineralocorticoid receptor. They are inactivated when salt is ingested. To date, HSD2 neurons have been identified and studied only in rats and mice.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pre-locus coeruleus</span>

Pre-locus coeruleus is a small nucleus in the brainstem. This small cluster of neurons also is referred to by the abbreviation "pre-LC". It was named "pre-LC" because it lies just rostral to the locus coeruleus, which is commonly abbreviated "LC".

The parafacial zone (PZ) is a brain structure located in the brainstem within the medulla oblongata believed to be heavily responsible for non-rapid eye movement (non-REM) sleep regulation, specifically for inducing slow-wave sleep.

The dorsal tegmental nucleus (DTN), also known as dorsal tegmental nucleus of Gudden (DTg), is a group of neurons located in the brain stem, which are involved in spatial navigation and orientation.

References

  1. ↑ Olszewski, J (1954). Cytoarchitecture of the Human Brainstem. Lippincott. pp. 1–199.
  2. 1 2 Fulwiler, C. E.; Saper, C. B. (1984-08-01). "Subnuclear organization of the efferent connections of the parabrachial nucleus in the rat". Brain Research. 319 (3): 229–259. doi:10.1016/0165-0173(84)90012-2. ISSN   0006-8993. PMID   6478256. S2CID   13253760.
  3. 1 2 Yokota, Shigefumi; Kaur, Satvinder; VanderHorst, Veronique G.; Saper, Clifford B.; Chamberlin, Nancy L. (2015-04-15). "Respiratory-related outputs of glutamatergic, hypercapnia-responsive parabrachial neurons in mice". The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 523 (6): 907–920. doi:10.1002/cne.23720. ISSN   1096-9861. PMC   4329052 . PMID   25424719.
  4. 1 2 3 4 Thomas P. Naidich; Henri M. Duvernoy; Bradley N. Delman (1 January 2009). Duvernoy's Atlas of the Human Brain Stem and Cerebellum: High-field MRI : Surface Anatomy, Internal Structure, Vascularization and 3D Sectional Anatomy. Springer. p. 324. ISBN   978-3-211-73971-6.
  5. 1 2 Herbert, H.; Moga, M. M.; Saper, C. B. (1990-03-22). "Connections of the parabrachial nucleus with the nucleus of the solitary tract and the medullary reticular formation in the rat". The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 293 (4): 540–580. doi:10.1002/cne.902930404. ISSN   0021-9967. PMID   1691748. S2CID   26878489.
  6. ↑ Cechetto, D. F.; Standaert, D. G.; Saper, C. B. (1985-10-08). "Spinal and trigeminal dorsal horn projections to the parabrachial nucleus in the rat". The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 240 (2): 153–160. doi:10.1002/cne.902400205. ISSN   0021-9967. PMID   3840498. S2CID   36330716.
  7. ↑ Moga, M. M.; Herbert, H.; Hurley, K. M.; Yasui, Y.; Gray, T. S.; Saper, C. B. (1990-05-22). "Organization of cortical, basal forebrain, and hypothalamic afferents to the parabrachial nucleus in the rat". The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 295 (4): 624–661. doi:10.1002/cne.902950408. ISSN   0021-9967. PMID   1694187. S2CID   41283776.
  8. ↑ Block, C. H.; Hoffman, G. E. (1987-03-01). "Neuropeptide and monoamine components of the parabrachial pontine complex". Peptides. 8 (2): 267–283. doi:10.1016/0196-9781(87)90102-1. ISSN   0196-9781. PMID   2884646. S2CID   23357848.
  9. ↑ Kaur, Satvinder; Pedersen, Nigel P.; Yokota, Shigefumi; Hur, Elizabeth E.; Fuller, Patrick M.; Lazarus, Michael; Chamberlin, Nancy L.; Saper, Clifford B. (2013-05-01). "Glutamatergic signaling from the parabrachial nucleus plays a critical role in hypercapnic arousal". The Journal of Neuroscience. 33 (18): 7627–7640. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0173-13.2013. ISSN   1529-2401. PMC   3674488 . PMID   23637157.
  10. ↑ Fuller, Patrick M.; Fuller, Patrick; Sherman, David; Pedersen, Nigel P.; Saper, Clifford B.; Lu, Jun (2011-04-01). "Reassessment of the structural basis of the ascending arousal system". The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 519 (5): 933–956. doi:10.1002/cne.22559. ISSN   1096-9861. PMC   3119596 . PMID   21280045.
  11. ↑ Kroeger, Daniel; Ferrari, Loris L.; Petit, Gaetan; Mahoney, Carrie E.; Fuller, Patrick M.; Arrigoni, Elda; Scammell, Thomas E. (2017-02-01). "Cholinergic, Glutamatergic, and GABAergic Neurons of the Pedunculopontine Tegmental Nucleus Have Distinct Effects on Sleep/Wake Behavior in Mice". The Journal of Neuroscience. 37 (5): 1352–1366. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1405-16.2016. ISSN   1529-2401. PMC   5296799 . PMID   28039375.
  12. ↑ Garfield, Alastair S.; Shah, Bhavik P.; Madara, Joseph C.; Burke, Luke K.; Patterson, Christa M.; Flak, Jonathan; Neve, Rachael L.; Evans, Mark L.; Lowell, Bradford B. (2014-12-02). "A parabrachial-hypothalamic cholecystokinin neurocircuit controls counterregulatory responses to hypoglycemia". Cell Metabolism. 20 (6): 1030–1037. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2014.11.006. ISSN   1932-7420. PMC   4261079 . PMID   25470549.
  13. ↑ Geerling, Joel C.; Kim, Minjee; Mahoney, Carrie E.; Abbott, Stephen B. G.; Agostinelli, Lindsay J.; Garfield, Alastair S.; Krashes, Michael J.; Lowell, Bradford B.; Scammell, Thomas E. (2016-01-01). "Genetic identity of thermosensory relay neurons in the lateral parabrachial nucleus". American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology. 310 (1): R41–54. doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00094.2015. ISSN   1522-1490. PMC   4747895 . PMID   26491097.
  14. ↑ Nakamura, K (2018). "Thermoregulatory behavior and its central circuit mechanism-What thermosensory pathway drives it?]". Clinical Calcium. 28 (1): 65–72. PMID   29279428.
  15. ↑ Yahiro, T; Kataoka, N; Nakamura, Y; Nakamura, K (10 July 2017). "The lateral parabrachial nucleus, but not the thalamus, mediates thermosensory pathways for behavioural thermoregulation". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 5031. Bibcode:2017NatSR...7.5031Y. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-05327-8. PMC   5503995 . PMID   28694517.
  16. ↑ Yasui, Y.; Saper, C. B.; Cechetto, D. F. (1989-12-22). "Calcitonin gene-related peptide immunoreactivity in the visceral sensory cortex, thalamus, and related pathways in the rat". The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 290 (4): 487–501. doi:10.1002/cne.902900404. ISSN   0021-9967. PMID   2613940. S2CID   28112065.
  17. ↑ Mu, Di; Deng, Juan; Liu, Ke-Fei; Wu, Zhen-Yu; Shi, Yu-Feng; Guo, Wei-Min; Mao, Qun-Quan; Liu, Xing-Jun; Li, Hui; Sun, Yan-Gang (17 August 2017). "A central neural circuit for itch sensation". Science. 357 (6352): 695–699. Bibcode:2017Sci...357..695M. doi: 10.1126/science.aaf4918 . PMID   28818946.
  18. ↑ Berridge KC, Kringelbach ML (May 2015). "Pleasure systems in the brain". Neuron. 86 (3): 646–664. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2015.02.018. PMC   4425246 . PMID   25950633. In the prefrontal cortex, recent evidence indicates that the OFC and insula cortex may each contain their own additional hot spots (D.C. Castro et al., Soc. Neurosci., abstract). In specific subregions of each area, either opioid-stimulating or orexin-stimulating microinjections appear to enhance the number of liking reactions elicited by sweetness, similar to the NAc and VP hot spots. Successful confirmation of hedonic hot spots in the OFC or insula would be important and possibly relevant to the orbitofrontal mid-anterior site mentioned earlier that especially tracks the subjective pleasure of foods in humans (Georgiadis et al., 2012; Kringelbach, 2005; Kringelbach et al., 2003; Small et al., 2001; Veldhuizen et al., 2010). Finally, in the brainstem, a hindbrain site near the parabrachial nucleus of dorsal pons also appears able to contribute to hedonic gains of function (So¨ derpalm and Berridge, 2000). A brainstem mechanism for pleasure may seem more surprising than forebrain hot spots to anyone who views the brainstem as merely reflexive, but the pontine parabrachial nucleus contributes to taste, pain, and many visceral sensations from the body and has also been suggested to play an important role in motivation (Wu et al., 2012) and in human emotion (especially related to the somatic marker hypothesis) (Damasio, 2010).
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