| Pilobolaceae | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Pilobolus crystallinus | |
Scientific classification  | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Fungi |
| Division: | Mucoromycota |
| Order: | Mucorales |
| Family: | Pilobolaceae Corda |
| Type genus | |
| Pilobolus | |
| Genera | |
The Pilobolaceae are a family of fungi in the Mucorales order. Generally, species in this family have a widespread distribution, although there are some that are restricted to tropical and subtropical regions. [1] This family includes two genera: Pilobolus , and Utharomyces . [2] [3]
All species produce unusual, phototrophic sporangiophores. These sporangiophores give rise to dark-colored, columellate sporagia[ check spelling ] covered in calcium oxalate crystals. In Pilobolus and Utharomyces, inflated structures filled with yellow carotenoid pigments give rise to the sporophores; these two genera also produce subsporangiul vesicles. Zygospores are formed on apposed, entwined suspensors, usually at or below the dung. [2]
All species grow on dung but can rarely be isolated from the soil. Pilobolus are common on many types of herbivore dung, while Utharomyces grows on rodent dung. [2] Utharomyces appears to be restricted to the tropics. [3]
This family has spectacular means of dispersal. Many species require passage through the gut of an herbivore in order for the spores to germinate. The problem is that many animals tend to avoid eating their own dung. To compensate, remarkable mechanisms of spore dispersal are used. [4]
In Pilobolus, the subsporangial swelling acts as a lens to focus light on light-sensitive pigments at the base of the swelling. Turgor pressure builds inside of the swelling until it ruptures, and the sporangium is hurled for 2 meters. The calcium oxalate crystals helps it adhere to the surface it lands on, and if the surface is wet, the crystals allow the sporangium to rotate. This rotation allows the mucus surrounding the spores (under the crystals) to glue it to surface where it will await ingestion by an herbivore. Nematodes have been observed climbing the sporangiophore or swimming inside of it to catch a ride on the sporangium. While many species may do this, it seems only Dictyocaulus vivipores , cattle lungworm, are able to survive the trip. [2]
Mechanisms of dispersal are less known in these genera. In both genera, the sporangiophore, guided by light, elongates until the sporangium is brought into contact with a solid surface. In Pilobolus, contact with the surface causes a rupture at the columella, which releases the sporangium, which adheres to the new surface. In Utharomyces, contact with the surface ruptures the subsporangial swelling. This releases cytoplasm, which is used to glue the upper portion of the swelling containing the sporangium to the substrate. [2]
In biology, a spore is a unit of sexual or asexual reproduction that may be adapted for dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many plants, algae, fungi and protozoa.
Zygomycota, or zygote fungi, is a former division or phylum of the kingdom Fungi. The members are now part of two phyla: the Mucoromycota and Zoopagomycota. Approximately 1060 species are known. They are mostly terrestrial in habitat, living in soil or on decaying plant or animal material. Some are parasites of plants, insects, and small animals, while others form symbiotic relationships with plants. Zygomycete hyphae may be coenocytic, forming septa only where gametes are formed or to wall off dead hyphae. Zygomycota is no longer recognised as it was not believed to be truly monophyletic.
Pilobolus is a genus of fungi that commonly grows on herbivore dung.
A zygospore is a diploid reproductive stage in the life cycle of many fungi and protists. Zygospores are created by the nuclear fusion of haploid cells. In fungi, zygospores are formed in zygosporangia after the fusion of specialized budding structures, from mycelia of the same or different mating types, and may be chlamydospores. In many eukaryotic algae, including many species of the Chlorophyta, zygospores are formed by the fusion of unicellular gametes of different mating types.
Phycomyces blakesleeanus is a filamentous fungus in the Order Mucorales of the phylum Zygomycota or subphylum Mucoromycotina. The spore-bearing sporangiophores of Phycomyces are very sensitive to different environmental signals including light, gravity, wind, chemicals and adjacent objects. They exhibit phototropic growth: most Phycomyces research has focused on sporangiophore photobiology, such as phototropism and photomecism. Metabolic, developmental, and photoresponse mutants have been isolated, some of which have been genetically mapped. At least ten different genes are required for phototropism. The madA gene encodes a protein related to the White Collar 1 class of photoreceptors that are present in other fungi, while madB encodes a protein related to the White Collar 2 protein that physically bind to White collar 1 to participate in the responses to light.
The Mucorales is the largest and best-studied order of zygomycete fungi. Members of this order are sometimes called pin molds. The term mucormycosis is now preferred for infections caused by molds belonging to the order Mucorales.
Mucor is a microbial genus of approximately 40 species of molds in the family Mucoraceae. Species are commonly found in soil, digestive systems, plant surfaces, some cheeses like Tomme de Savoie, rotten vegetable matter and iron oxide residue in the biosorption process.
Mucor mucedo, commonly known as the common pinmould, is a fungal plant pathogen and member of the phylum Mucoromycota and the genus Mucor. Commonly found on soil, dung, water, plants and moist foods, Mucor mucedo is a saprotrophic fungus found world-wide with 85 known strains. It is often mistaken for Rhizopus rots on fruits due to similar mould growth shape and colour. Contrastingly, however, Mucor mucedo is found to grow on a wide range of stored grains and plants, including cucumber and tomato. Discovered in Italy in 1729 by P.A. Micheli and later noted by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 in the Species Plantarum, Mucor mucedo was originally classified as Mucor vulgaris by Micheli but later classified synonymous under name Mucor mucedo. The species was redescribed as Ascophora mucedo by H.J. Tode in 1790 but this type resided in a stoloniferous habitat and was later made the type of new genus Rhizopus.
Pilobolus crystallinus var. crystallinus, commonly known as the "dung cannon" or "hat thrower", is a species of fungus belonging to the Mucorales order. It is unique in that it adheres its spores to vegetation, so as to be eaten by grazing animals. It then passes through the animals' digestive systems and grows in their feces. Although these fungi only grow to be 2–4 cm (0.8–1.6 in) tall, they can shoot their sporangium, containing their spores, up to 2 m (6.6 ft) away. Due to an increase of pressure in the vesicle, the sporangium can accelerate 0–45 mph in the first millimeter of its flight, which corresponds to an acceleration of an incredible 20000 g. Using a mucus-like substance found in the vesicle of the fungus, the sporangium can adhere itself onto whatever it lands, thus completing its life cycle.
Entomophthora is a fungal genus in the family Entomophthoraceae. Species in this genus are parasitic on flies and other two-winged insects. The genus was circumscribed by German physician Johann Baptist Georg Wolfgang Fresenius (1808–1866) in 1856.
The Cunninghamellaceae are a family of fungi in the order Mucorales.
The Mortierellaceae are a family of fungi in the order Mortierellales. The family contains six genera and 93 species.
Coprophilous fungi are a type of saprobic fungi that grow on animal dung. The hardy spores of coprophilous species are unwittingly consumed by herbivores from vegetation, and are excreted along with the plant matter. The fungi then flourish in the feces, before releasing their spores to the surrounding area.
Geastrum saccatum, commonly known as the rounded earthstar, is a species of mushroom belonging to the genus Geastrum. It has a worldwide distribution and is found growing on rotting wood. It is considered inedible by mushroomers because of its bitter taste. It is a common mushroom, but collections are at their peak during late summer. The opening of the outer layer of the fruiting body in the characteristic star shape is thought to be due to a buildup of calcium oxalate crystals immediately prior to dehiscence. G. saccatum is distinguished from other earthstars by the distinct circular ridge or depression surrounding the central pore. In Brazil, its common name translates to "star of the land".
Geastrum pectinatum is an inedible species of mushroom belonging to the earthstar family of fungi. Although young specimens are spherical, fruit body development involves the outer layer of tissue splitting open like a star into 7 to 10 pointed rays that eventually bend back to point downward, revealing a small – 1 to 2.5 cm broad – spore sac. The spore sac is supported by a small radially wrinkled stalk. There is a distinct conical opening (peristome) at the top of the spore sac that is up to 8 mm (0.3 in) long. It is commonly known as the beaked earthstar or the beret earthstar, in reference to the shape of the spore sac and its prominent, protruding peristome. The mass of spores and surrounding cells within the sac, the gleba, is dark-brown, and becomes powdery in mature specimens. Spores are spherical, measuring 4 to 6 micrometers in diameter, with warts on their surfaces. Although uncommon, Geastrum pectinatum has a cosmopolitan distribution, and has been collected in various locations in Europe, North and South America, Asia, Australia and Africa, where it grows on the ground in open woods. Like several other earthstars, crystals of calcium oxalate are found on G. pectinatum, and are thought to be involved in fruit body maturation.
Spinellus fusiger, commonly known as bonnet mold, is a species of fungus in the phylum Zygomycota. It is a pin mold that is characterized by erect sporangiophores that are simple in structure, brown or yellowish-brown in color, and with branched aerial filaments that bear the zygospores. It grows as a parasitic mold on mushrooms, including several species from the genera Mycena, including M. haematopus, M. pura, M. epipterygia, M. leptocephala, and various Collybia species, such as C. alkalivirens, C. luteifolia, C. dryophila, and C. butyracea. It has also been found growing on agaric species in Amanita, Gymnopus, and Hygrophorus.
Utharomyces is a fungal genus in the family Pilobolaceae. The genus is monotypic, containing the single coprophilous (dung-loving) species Utharomyces epallocaulus, which is widely distributed in subtropical regions. Utharomyces was circumscribed by the Dutch botanist Karel Bernard Boedijn in 1958. U. epallocaulus has been collected in Bahamas, Ghana, India, Indonesia, Mexico, China, and the United States.
Cunninghamella bertholletiae is a species of zygomycetous fungi in the order Mucorales. It is found globally, with increased prevalence in Mediterranean and subtropical climates. It typically grows as a saprotroph and is found in a wide variety of substrates, including soil, fruits, vegetables, nuts, crops, and human and animal waste. Although infections are still rare, C. betholletiae is emerging as an opportunistic human pathogen, predominantly in immunocompromised people, leukemia patients, and people with uncontrolled diabetes. Cunninghamella bertholletiae infections are often highly invasive, and can be more difficult to treat with antifungal drugs than infections with other species of the Mucorales, making prompt and accurate recognition and diagnosis of mycoses caused by this fungus an important medical concern.
Syzygites is a monotypic genus in Zygomycota. The sole described species is Syzygites megalocarpus, which was the first fungus for which sex was reported and the main homothallic representative in the research that allowed for the classification of fungi as homothallic or heterothallic. It is also the fungus from which the term "zygospore" was coined.
Umbelopsis ramanniana is a common and abundant soil fungus. Although the ecological role of this fungus in natural ecosystems is not yet known, it is a cosmopolitan saprotroph in soil, forest leaf litter, in animal dung, and on the spore-producing bodies of ascomycete fungi. Umbelopsis ramanniana has also been found growing as an endophyte within xylem tissue of both healthy and declining conifers, but its exact effect on the plant hosts is unknown. Umbelopsis ramanniana is a representative of a unique group of zygomycete fungi that is distinct from the Mucoromycotina and Mortierellomycotina and instead forms an early diverging lineage within the Mucoralean fungi. Umbelopsis ramanniana is important from a biochemistry and biotechnology perspective because it is highly tolerant to fungicides of benomyl group, and it is oleaginous. Expression of Umbelopsis ramanniana diacylglycerol O-acyltransferase 2A in seed increases oil in soybean without reduction of other important yield parameters. This increase in oil can potentially add over $1 billion to the annual value of soybean crops.
