Piranha solution, also known as piranha etch, is a mixture of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). The resulting mixture is used to clean organic residues off substrates, for example silicon wafers.[1] Because the mixture is a strong oxidizing agent, it will decompose most organic matter, and it will also hydroxylate most surfaces (by adding –OH groups), making them highly hydrophilic (water-compatible). This means the solution can also easily dissolvefabric and skin, potentially causing severe damage and chemical burns in case of inadvertent contact. It is named after the piranha fish due to its tendency to rapidly dissolve and 'consume' organic materials through vigorous chemical reactions.
Many different mixture ratios are commonly used, and all are called piranha. A typical mixture is 3 parts of concentrated sulfuric acid and 1 part of 30 wt.% hydrogen peroxide solution;[1] other protocols may use a 4:1 or even 7:1 mixture. A closely related mixture, sometimes called "base piranha", is a 5:1:1 mixture of water, ammonia solution (NH4OH, or NH3(aq)), and 30% hydrogen peroxide.[2][3] As hydrogen peroxide is less stable at high pH than under acidic conditions, NH4OH (pH c. 11.6) also accelerates its decomposition. At higher pH, H2O2 will decompose violently.
Piranha solution must be prepared with great care. It is highly corrosive and an extremely powerful oxidizer. Surfaces must be reasonably clean and completely free of organic solvents from previous washing steps before coming into contact with the solution. Piranha solution cleans by decomposing organic contaminants, and a large amount of contaminant will cause violent bubbling and a release of gas that can cause an explosion.[4]
Piranha solution should always be prepared by adding hydrogen peroxide to sulfuric acid slowly, never in reverse order.[5][6] This minimises the concentration of hydrogen peroxide during the mixing process, helping to reduce instantaneous heat generation and explosion risk. Mixing the solution is an extremely exothermic process. If the solution is made rapidly, it will instantly boil, releasing large amounts of corrosive fumes. Even when made with care, the resulting heat can easily bring the solution temperature above 100°C. It must be allowed to cool reasonably before it is used. A sudden increase in temperature can also lead to a violent boiling of the extremely acidic solution. Solutions made using hydrogen peroxide at concentrations greater than 50 wt% may cause an explosion.[7] The 1:1 acid–peroxide mixtures will also create an explosion risk even when using common 30 wt.% hydrogen peroxide.[8]
Once the mixture has stabilized, it can be further heated to sustain its reactivity.[7] The hot (often bubbling) solution cleans organic compounds off substrates and oxidizes or hydroxylates most metal surfaces. Cleaning usually requires about 10 to 40 minutes, after which the substrates can be removed from the solution and rinsed with deionized water.
The solution may be mixed before application or directly applied to the material, applying the sulfuric acid first, followed by the peroxide. Due to the self-decomposition of hydrogen peroxide, piranha solution should always be used freshly prepared (extemporaneous preparation). The solution should not be stored, as it generates gas and therefore cannot be kept in a closed container because of the risk of overpressure and explosion.[5][9] As the solution violently reacts with many oxidizable substances commonly disposed of as chemical waste, if the solution has not yet been completely self-decomposed, or safely neutralized, it must be left in an open container under a fume hood, and clearly marked.
In the laboratory, this solution is sometimes used to clean glassware, though it is discouraged in many institutions and it should not be used routinely due to its dangers.[10] Unlike chromic acid solutions, piranha does not contaminate glassware with Cr3+ ions.
Piranha solution is particularly useful when cleaning sintered (or "fritted") glass filters. A good porosity and sufficient permeability of the sintered glass filter is critical for its proper function, so it should never be cleaned with strong bases (NaOH, Na3PO4, Na2CO3, ...) which dissolve the silica of the glass sinter and clog the filter. Sintered glass also tends to trap small solid particles deep inside its porous structure, making it difficult to remove them. Where less aggressive cleaning methods fail, piranha solution can be used to return the sinter to a pristine white, free-flowing form without excessive damage to the pore dimensions. This is usually achieved by allowing the solution to percolate backward through the sintered glass. Although cleaning sintered glass with piranha solution will leave it as clean as possible without damaging the glass, it is not recommend due to the risk of explosion from reacting with traces of organic compounds, such as acetone.[7]
Piranha solution is also used to make glass more hydrophilic by hydroxylating its surface, thus increasing the number of silanol groups present on its surface.[11]
The effectiveness of piranha solution in decomposing organic residues is due to two distinct processes operating at noticeably different rates. The first and faster[citation needed] process is the removal of hydrogen and oxygen as units of water by the concentrated sulfuric acid. This occurs because hydration of concentrated sulfuric acid is strongly thermodynamically favorable, with a standard enthalpy of reaction (ΔH) of −880 kJ/mol. The dehydration process exhibits itself as the rapid carbonisation of common organic materials, especially carbohydrates, when they enter in contact with sulfuric acid.[12]
With respect to organic residues such as thin films or wax, this results in the formation of carbon compounds rich in C=C double bonds.[13]
Simultaneously, sulfuric acid reacts with hydrogen peroxide to produce Caro's acid, which then undergoes homeolytic cleavage to produce oxygen-based radicals.[13] Thus, with the addition of sulfuric acid, hydrogen peroxide is converted from a relatively mild oxidizing agent into one sufficiently aggressive to dissolve elemental carbon, a material that is notoriously resistant to room-temperature aqueous reactions (as, e.g., with sulfochromic acid). This transformation can also be viewed as the energetically favorable dehydration of hydrogen peroxide by concentrated sulfuric acid to form hydronium ions, bisulfate ions, and, transiently, atomic oxygenradicals (very labile O•): [14]
The resulting oxyradicals then interact with carbon-based compounds, generating alkyl radicals while breaking C-H and C-C bonds:[13]
RH + HSO3O• → R• + H2SO4
RCH2R + •OH → R• + H2O
Finally, the alkyl radicals react with additional oxygen radicals, terminating the reaction and fully oxidizing the carbon to CO2:[13]
•R + •O → CO
•R + •O → CO2
The carbon removed by the piranha solution may be either original residues or char from the dehydration step. The oxidation process is slower than the dehydration process, taking place over a period of minutes.[citation needed] The oxidation of carbon exhibits itself as a gradual clearing of suspended soot and carbon char left by the initial dehydration process. With time, piranha solutions in which organic materials have been immersed typically return to complete clarity, with no visible traces of the original organic materials remaining.
A last secondary contribution to the piranha solution cleaning is its high acidity, which dissolves deposits such as metal oxides, hydroxides, and carbonates. However, since it is safer and easier to remove such deposits using milder acids, the solution is more typically used in situations where high acidity facilitates cleaning instead of complicating it. For substrates with low tolerance for acidity, an alkaline solution consisting of ammonium hydroxide and hydrogen peroxide, known as base piranha, is preferred.
Etymology
Piranha solution is named after the piranha fish. It is so first because the vigor of the dehydration process, since large quantities of organic residues immersed in the solution are dehydrated so violently that the process resembles the fish's reputed feeding frenzy. The second and more definitive rationale for the name, however, is the dissolution ability of piranha solution, capable of "eating anything", in particular, elemental carbon in the form of soot or char.
Safety and disposal
Piranha solution is dangerous to handle, being both strongly acidic and a strong oxidizer. Solution that is no longer being used should never be left unattended if hot. It should never be stored in a closed receptacle because of the risk of gas overpressure and explosive burst with spills (especially with fragile thin wall volumetric flask). Piranha solution should never be disposed of with organic solvents (e.g. in waste solvent carboys), as this will cause a violent reaction and a substantial explosion, and any aqueous waste container containing even a weak or depleted piranha solution should be labelled appropriately to prevent this.[5]
The solution should be allowed to cool, and oxygen gas should be allowed to dissipate prior to disposal. When cleaning glassware, it is both prudent and practical to allow the piranha solution to react overnight taking care to leave the receptacles open under a ventilated fume cupboard. This allows the spent solution to degrade prior to disposal and is especially important if a large portion of peroxide was used in the preparation. While some institutions believe that used piranha solution should be collected as hazardous waste, others consider that it can be neutralized and poured down the drain with copious amounts of water.[5][15][16] Improper neutralization can cause a fast decomposition, which releases pure oxygen (increased risk of fire of flammable substances in a close space).
One procedure for acid-base neutralization consists in pouring the piranha solution into a sufficiently large glass container filled with at least five times the solution's mass of ice (for cooling the exothermic reaction, and also for dilution purposes), then slowly adding 1M sodium or potassium hydroxide solution until neutralized. If ice is not available then the piranha solution can be added very slowly to a saturated solution of sodium bicarbonate in a large glass container, with a large amount of undissolved bicarbonate at the bottom that is renewed if it is depleted. The bicarbonate method also releases a large amount of gaseous CO2 and therefore is not preferred since it can easily overflow with a lot of foam if the addition of the piranha solution is not slow enough, and without cooling the solution can also become very hot.[17]
Hydrogen peroxide is a chemical compound with the formula H2O2. In its pure form, it is a very pale blue liquid that is slightly more viscous than water. It is used as an oxidizer, bleaching agent, and antiseptic, usually as a dilute solution in water for consumer use and in higher concentrations for industrial use. Concentrated hydrogen peroxide, or "high-test peroxide", decomposes explosively when heated and has been used as both a monopropellant and an oxidizer in rocketry.
Nitric acid is an inorganic compound with the formula HNO3. It is a highly corrosive mineral acid. The compound is colorless, but samples tend to acquire a yellow cast over time due to decomposition into oxides of nitrogen. Most commercially available nitric acid has a concentration of 68% in water. When the solution contains more than 86% HNO3, it is referred to as fuming nitric acid. Depending on the amount of nitrogen dioxide present, fuming nitric acid is further characterized as red fuming nitric acid at concentrations above 86%, or white fuming nitric acid at concentrations above 95%.
Sulfuric acid or sulphuric acid, known in antiquity as oil of vitriol, is a mineral acid composed of the elements sulfur, oxygen, and hydrogen, with the molecular formula H2SO4. It is a colorless, odorless, and viscous liquid that is soluble with water.
Aqua regia is a mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid, optimally in a molar ratio of 1:3. Aqua regia is a fuming liquid. Freshly prepared aqua regia is colorless, but it turns yellow, orange or red within seconds from the formation of nitrosyl chloride and nitrogen dioxide. It was so named by alchemists because it can dissolve noble metals like gold and platinum, though not all metals.
Oleum, or fuming sulfuric acid, is a term referring to solutions of various compositions of sulfur trioxide in sulfuric acid, or sometimes more specifically to disulfuric acid.
Hydrofluoric acid is a solution of hydrogen fluoride (HF) in water. Solutions of HF are colorless, acidic and highly corrosive. A common concentration is 49% (48-52%) but there are also stronger solutions and pure HF has a boiling point near room temperature. It is used to make most fluorine-containing compounds; examples include the commonly used pharmaceutical antidepressant medication fluoxetine (Prozac) and the material PTFE (Teflon). Elemental fluorine is produced from it. It is commonly used to etch glass and silicon wafers.
Chromic acid is jargon for a solution formed by the addition of sulfuric acid to aqueous solutions of dichromate. It consists at least in part of chromium trioxide.
Sodium percarbonate or sodium carbonate peroxide is a chemical substance with formula Na2H3CO6. It is an adduct of sodium carbonate and hydrogen peroxide whose formula is more properly written as 2 Na2CO3 · 3 H2O2. It is a colorless, crystalline, hygroscopic and water-soluble solid. It is sometimes abbreviated as SPC. It contains 32.5% by weight of hydrogen peroxide.
Sulfur trioxide (alternative spelling sulphur trioxide) is the chemical compound with the formula SO3. It has been described as "unquestionably the most [economically] important sulfur oxide". It is prepared on an industrial scale as a precursor to sulfuric acid.
Fenton's reagent is a solution of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and an iron catalyst (typically iron(II) sulfate, FeSO4). It is used to oxidize contaminants or waste water as part of an advanced oxidation process. Fenton's reagent can be used to destroy organic compounds such as trichloroethylene and tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene). It was developed in the 1890s by Henry John Horstman Fenton as an analytical reagent.
Peroxymonosulfuric acid, H 2SO 5, is also known as persulfuric acid, peroxysulfuric acid, or Caro's acid. In this acid, the S(VI) center adopts its characteristic tetrahedral geometry; the connectivity is indicated by the formula HO–O–S(O)2–OH. It is one of the strongest oxidants known (E0 = +2.51 V) and is highly explosive.
In organic chemistry, organic peroxides are organic compounds containing the peroxide functional group. If the R′ is hydrogen, the compounds are called hydroperoxides, which are discussed in that article. The O−O bond of peroxides easily breaks, producing free radicals of the form RO•. Thus, organic peroxides are useful as initiators for some types of polymerization, such as the acrylic, unsaturated polyester, and vinyl ester resins used in glass-reinforced plastics. MEKP and benzoyl peroxide are commonly used for this purpose. However, the same property also means that organic peroxides can explosively combust. Organic peroxides, like their inorganic counterparts, are often powerful bleaching agents.
The Dakin oxidation (or Dakin reaction) is an organic redox reaction in which an ortho- or para-hydroxylated phenyl aldehyde (2-hydroxybenzaldehyde or 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde) or ketone reacts with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in base to form a benzenediol and a carboxylate. Overall, the carbonyl group is oxidised, whereas the H2O2 is reduced.
Manganese(VII) oxide (manganese heptoxide) is an inorganic compound with the formula Mn2O7. Manganese heptoxide is a volatile liquid with an oily consistency. It is a highly reactive and powerful oxidizer that reacts explosively with nearly any organic compound. It was first described in 1860. It is the acid anhydride of permanganic acid.
Peroxydisulfuric acid is an inorganic compound with a chemical formula (HO3SO)2. Also called Marshall's acid after Professor Hugh Marshall, who discovered it in 1891.
The RCA clean is a standard set of wafer cleaning steps which need to be performed before high-temperature processing steps of silicon wafers in semiconductor manufacturing.
An NMR tube is a thin glass walled tube used to contain samples in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Typically NMR tubes come in 5 mm diameters but 10 mm and 3 mm samples are known. It is important that the tubes are uniformly thick and well-balanced to ensure that NMR tube spins at a regular rate, usually about 20 Hz in the NMR spectrometer.
Bleach is the generic name for any chemical product that is used industrially or domestically to remove color from fabric or fiber or to disinfect after cleaning. It often refers specifically to a dilute solution of sodium hypochlorite, also called "liquid bleach".
Green death is a solution used to test the resistance of metals and alloys to corrosion. It consists of a mixture of sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, iron(III) chloride and copper(II) chloride and its boiling point is at approximately 103 °C. Its typical chemical composition is given in the table hereafter:
Isopropyl alcohol is a colorless, flammable, organic compound with a pungent alcoholic odor.
↑ Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials (14thed.). Quincy, Massachusetts: National Fire Protection Association. 2010. pp.491–499. ISBN9781616650414.
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