Prices of chemical elements

Last updated

This is a list of prices of chemical elements. Listed here are mainly average market prices for bulk trade of commodities. Data on elements' abundance in Earth's crust is added for comparison.

Contents

As of 2020, the most expensive non-synthetic element by both mass and volume is rhodium. It is followed by caesium, iridium and palladium by mass and iridium, gold and platinum by volume. Carbon in the form of diamond can be more expensive than rhodium. Per-kilogram prices of some synthetic radioisotopes range to trillions of dollars. While the difficulty of obtaining macroscopic samples of synthetic elements in part explains their high value, there has been interest in converting base metals to gold (Chrysopoeia) since ancient times, but only deeper understanding of nuclear physics has allowed the actual production of a tiny amount of gold from other elements for research purposes as demonstrated by Glenn Seaborg. [1] [2] However, both this and other routes of synthesis of precious metals via nuclear reactions is orders of magnitude removed from economic viability.

Chlorine, sulfur and carbon (as coal) are cheapest by mass. Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and chlorine are cheapest by volume at atmospheric pressure.

When there is no public data on the element in its pure form, price of a compound is used, per mass of element contained. This implicitly puts the value of compounds' other constituents, and the cost of extraction of the element, at zero. For elements whose radiological properties are important, individual isotopes and isomers are listed. The price listing for radioisotopes is not exhaustive.

Chart

Z Symbol Name Density [a] (⁠kg/ L ⁠) Abundance and total mass in Earth's crust [b] (⁠mg/kg⁠)Price [7] YearSourceNotes
USD/kgUSD/L [c]
1H Hydrogen 0.000089881400 (3.878×1019 kg)1.390.0001252012DOE Hydrogen [8] [d]
12H (D) Deuterium 0.0001667 [10] 134002.232020CIL [11] [e]
2He Helium 0.00017850.008 (2.216×1014 kg)24.00.004292018USGS MCS [14] [f]
3Li Lithium 0.53420 (5.54×1017 kg)81.4–85.643.4–45.72020SMM [16] [g] [h]
4Be Beryllium 1.852.8 (7.756×1016 kg)85715902020ISE 2020 [17] [i] [j]
5B Boron 2.3410 (2.77×1017 kg)3.688.622019CEIC Data [18] [k] [l]
6C Carbon 2.267200 (5.54×1018 kg)0.1220.282018EIA Coal [19] [m]
7N Nitrogen 0.001250619 (5.263×1017 kg)0.1400.0001752001Hypertextbook [24] [n]
8O Oxygen 0.001429461000 (1.277×1022 kg)0.1540.0002202001Hypertextbook [24] [o]
9F Fluorine 0.001696585 (1.62×1019 kg)1.84–2.160.00311 – 0.003652017Echemi [25] [p]
10Ne Neon 0.00089990.005 (1.385×1014 kg)2400.211999Ullmann [26] [q]
11Na Sodium 0.97123600 (6.537×1020 kg)2.57–3.432.49–3.332020SMM [27] [g] [r]
12Mg Magnesium 1.73823300 (6.454×1020 kg)2.324.032019Preismonitor [20] [s] [t]
13Al Aluminium 2.69882300 (2.28×1021 kg)1.794.842019Preismonitor [20] [s] [u]
14Si Silicon 2.3296282000 (7.811×1021 kg)1.703.972019Preismonitor [20] [s] [v]
15P Phosphorus 1.821050 (2.909×1019 kg)2.694.902019CEIC Data [18] [k] [w]
16S Sulfur 2.067350 (9.695×1018 kg)0.09260.1912019CEIC Data [18] [k]
17Cl Chlorine 0.003214145 (4.075×1018 kg)0.0820.000262013CnAgri [29] [x]
18Ar Argon 0.00178373.5 (9.695×1016 kg)0.9310.001662019UNLV [31] [y]
19K Potassium 0.86220900 (5.789×1020 kg)12.1–13.610.5–11.72020SMM [32] [g] [z]
20Ca Calcium 1.5441500 (1.15×1021 kg)2.21–2.353.41–3.632020SMM [33] [g] [aa]
21Sc Scandium 2.98922 (6.094×1017 kg)3460103002020ISE 2020 [34] [ab] [ac]
22Ti Titanium 4.545650 (1.565×1020 kg)11.1–11.750.5–53.12020SMM [35] [g] [ad]
23V Vanadium 6.11120 (3.324×1018 kg)357–3852180–23502020SMM [36] [g] [ae]
24Cr Chromium 7.15102 (2.825×1018 kg)9.4067.22019Preismonitor [20] [s] [af]
25Mn Manganese 7.44950 (2.632×1019 kg)1.8213.62019Preismonitor [20] [s] [ag]
26Fe Iron 7.87456300 (1.565×1021 kg)0.4243.342020SMM [37] [g] [ah]
27Co Cobalt 8.8625 (6.925×1017 kg)32.82912019Preismonitor [20] [s] [ai]
28Ni Nickel 8.91284 (2.327×1018 kg)13.91242019Preismonitor [20] [s] [aj]
29Cu Copper 8.9660 (1.662×1018 kg)6.0053.82019Preismonitor [20] [s] [ak]
30Zn Zinc 7.13470 (1.939×1018 kg)2.5518.22019Preismonitor [20] [s] [al]
31Ga Gallium 5.90719 (5.263×1017 kg)1488722019Preismonitor [20] [s] [am]
32Ge Germanium 5.3231.5 (4.155×1016 kg)914–10104860–53902020SMM [39] [g] [an]
33As Arsenic 5.7761.8 (4.986×1016 kg)0.999–1.315.77–7.582020SMM [40] [g] [ao]
34Se Selenium 4.8090.05 (1.385×1015 kg)21.41032019Preismonitor [20] [s] [ap]
35Br Bromine 3.1222.4 (6.648×1016 kg)4.3913.72019CEIC Data [18] [k]
36Kr Krypton 0.0037331×10−4 (2.77×1012 kg)2901.11999Ullmann [26] [aq]
37Rb Rubidium 1.53290 (2.493×1018 kg)15500237002018USGS MCS [14] [ar]
38Sr Strontium 2.64370 (1.025×1019 kg)6.53–6.6817.2–17.62019ISE 2019 [41] [as]
39Y Yttrium 4.46933 (9.141×1017 kg)31.01392019Preismonitor [20] [s] [at]
40Zr Zirconium 6.506165 (4.571×1018 kg)35.7–37.1232–2412020SMM [42] [g] [au]
41Nb Niobium 8.5720 (5.54×1017 kg)61.4–85.6526–7342020SMM [43] [g] [av]
42Mo Molybdenum 10.221.2 (3.324×1016 kg)40.14102019Preismonitor [20] [s] [aw]
43Tc Technetium 11.5~ 3×10−9 [ax] (8.31×107 kg)10000012000002004 [ay] CRC Handbook [az]
4399mTc Technetium-99m 11.51.9×101222×10122008NRC [46] [ba]
44Ru Ruthenium 12.370.001 (2.77×1013 kg)10400 – 10600129000 – 1310002020SMM [47] [g] [bb]
45Rh Rhodium 12.410.001 (2.77×1013 kg)14700018200002019Preismonitor [20] [s] [bc]
46Pd Palladium 12.020.015 (4.155×1014 kg)495005950002019Preismonitor [20] [s] [bd]
47Ag Silver 10.5010.075 (2.0775×1015 kg)52154702019Preismonitor [20] [s] [be]
48Cd Cadmium 8.690.159 (4.4043×1015 kg)2.7323.82019Preismonitor [20] [s] [bf]
49In Indium 7.310.25 (6.925×1015 kg)16712202019Preismonitor [20] [s] [bg]
50Sn Tin 7.2872.3 (6.371×1016 kg)18.71362019Preismonitor [20] [s] [bh]
51Sb Antimony 6.6850.2 (5.54×1015 kg)5.7938.72019Preismonitor [20] [s] [bi]
52Te Tellurium 6.2320.001 (2.77×1013 kg)63.53962019Preismonitor [20] [s] [bj]
53I Iodine 4.930.45 (1.2465×1016 kg)351732019Industrial Minerals [48] [bk]
54Xe Xenon 0.0058873×10−5 (8.31×1011 kg)1800111999Ullmann [26] [bl]
55Cs Caesium 1.8733 (8.31×1016 kg)618001160002018USGS MCS [14] [bm]
56Ba Barium 3.594425 (1.177×1019 kg)0.246–0.2750.886–0.9902016USGS MYB 2016 [49] [bn]
57La Lanthanum 6.14539 (1.08×1018 kg)4.78–4.9229.4–30.32020SMM [51] [g] [bo]
58Ce Cerium 6.7766.5 (1.84205×1018 kg)4.57–4.7130.9–31.92020SMM [52] [g] [bp]
59Pr Praseodymium 6.7739.2 (2.5484×1017 kg)1036952019Preismonitor [20] [s] [bq]
60Nd Neodymium 7.00741.5 (1.14955×1018 kg)57.54032019Preismonitor [20] [s] [br]
61147Pm Promethium-147 7.2646000034000002003Radiochemistry Society [53] [bs]
62Sm Samarium 7.527.05 (1.95285×1017 kg)13.91042019Preismonitor [20] [s] [bt]
63Eu Europium 5.2432 (5.54×1016 kg)31.41652020ISE 2020 [34] [ab] [bu]
64Gd Gadolinium 7.8956.2 (1.7174×1017 kg)28.62262020ISE 2020 [34] [ab] [bv]
65Tb Terbium 8.2291.2 (3.324×1016 kg)65854102019Preismonitor [20] [s] [bw]
66Dy Dysprosium 8.555.2 (1.4404×1017 kg)30726302019Preismonitor [20] [s] [bx]
67Ho Holmium 8.7951.3 (3.601×1016 kg)57.15032020ISE 2020 [34] [ab] [by]
68Er Erbium 9.0663.5 (9.695×1016 kg)26.42402020ISE 2020 [34] [ab] [bz]
69Tm Thulium 9.3210.52 (1.4404×1016 kg)3000280002003IMAR [54] [ca] [cb]
70Yb Ytterbium 6.9653.2 (8.864×1016 kg)17.11192020ISE 2020 [34] [ab] [cc]
71Lu Lutetium 9.840.8 (2.216×1016 kg)64363302020ISE 2020 [34] [ab] [cd]
72Hf Hafnium 13.313 (8.31×1016 kg)900120002017USGS MCS [14] [ce]
73Ta Tantalum 16.6542 (5.54×1016 kg)298–3124960–52002019ISE 2019 [41] [cf]
74W Tungsten 19.251.3 (3.601×1016 kg)35.36792019Preismonitor [20] [s] [cg]
75Re Rhenium 21.027×10−4 (1.939×1013 kg)3010–415063300 – 873002020SMM [55] [g] [ch]
76Os Osmium 22.610.002 (5.54×1013 kg)120002800002016Fastmarkets [ci]
77Ir Iridium 22.560.001 (2.77×1013 kg)55500 – 562001250000 – 12700002020SMM [58] [g] [cj]
78Pt Platinum 21.460.005 (1.385×1014 kg)278005960002019Preismonitor [20] [s] [ck]
79Au Gold 19.2820.004 (1.108×1014 kg)7543014544412024London gold fix [cl]
80Hg Mercury 13.53360.085 (2.3545×1015 kg)30.24092017USGS MCS [14] [cm]
81Tl Thallium 11.850.85 (2.3545×1016 kg)4200498002017USGS MCS [14]
82Pb Lead 11.34214 (3.878×1017 kg)2.0022.62019Preismonitor [20] [s] [cn]
83Bi Bismuth 9.8070.009 (2.493×1014 kg)6.3662.42019Preismonitor [20] [s] [co]
84209Po Polonium-209 9.3249.2×1012458×10122004 [ay] CRC Handbook (ORNL) [cp]
85At Astatine 73×10−20 [ax] (8.31×10−4 kg)Not traded. [cq]
86Rn Radon 0.009734×10−13 [ax] (1.108×104 kg)Not traded. [cr]
87Fr Francium 1.87~ 1×10−18 [ax] (2.77×10−2 kg)Not traded. [cs]
88Ra Radium 5.59×10−7 [ax] (2.493×1010 kg) Negative price. [ct]
89225Ac Actinium-225 10.0729×1012290×10122004 [ay] CRC Handbook (ORNL) [cp]
90Th Thorium 11.729.6 (2.6592×1017 kg)28733602010USGS MYB 2012 [63] [cu]
91Pa Protactinium 15.371.4×10−6 [ax] (3.878×1010 kg)No reliable price available. [cv]
92U Uranium 18.952.7 (7.479×1016 kg)10119102018EIA Uranium Marketing [65] [cw]
93Np Neptunium 20.45≤ 3×10−12 [ax] (8.31×104 kg)660000135000002003 [ay] Pomona [66] [cx]
94239Pu Plutonium-239 19.8464900001290000002019DOE OSTI [67] [cy]
95241Am Americium-241 13.69072800099700001998NWA [68] [cz] [da]
95243Am Americium-243 13.690750000103000002004 [ay] CRC Handbook (ORNL) [cp]
96244Cm Curium-244 13.5101850000002.50×1092004 [ay] CRC Handbook (ORNL) [cp]
96248Cm Curium-248 13.510160×1092.16×10122004 [ay] CRC Handbook (ORNL) [cp]
97249Bk Berkelium-249 14.790185×1092.74×10122004 [ay] CRC Handbook (ORNL) [cp]
98249Cf Californium-249 15.10185×1092.79×10122004 [ay] CRC Handbook (ORNL) [cp]
98252Cf Californium-252 15.1060.0×109906×1092004 [ay] CRC Handbook (ORNL) [cp]
99Es Einsteinium 8.840Not traded. [db]
100Fm Fermium (9.7)0Not traded. [dc]
101Md Mendelevium (10.3)0Not traded. [dd]
102No Nobelium (9.9)0Not traded. [de]
103Lr Lawrencium (15.6)0Not traded. [df]
104Rf Rutherfordium (23.2)0Not traded. [dg]
105Db Dubnium (29.3)0Not traded. [dh]
106Sg Seaborgium (35.0)0Not traded. [di]
107Bh Bohrium (37.1)0Not traded. [dj]
108Hs Hassium (40.7)0Not traded. [dk]
109Mt Meitnerium (37.4)0Not traded. [dl]
110Ds Darmstadtium (34.8)0Not traded. [dm]
111Rg Roentgenium (28.7)0Not traded. [dn]
112Cn Copernicium (14.0)0Not traded. [do]
113Nh Nihonium (16)0Not traded. [dp]
114Fl Flerovium (9.928)0Not traded. [dq]
115Mc Moscovium (13.5)0Not traded. [dr]
116Lv Livermorium (12.9)0Not traded. [ds]
117Ts Tennessine (7.2)0Not traded. [dt]
118Og Oganesson (7)0Not traded. [du]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Density for 0 °C, 101.325 kPa. [3] For individual isotopes except deuterium, density of base element is used. Values in parentheses are theoretical predictions.
  2. ↑ Unless otherwise indicated, elements are primordial – they occur naturally, and not through decay.
  3. ↑ Price per volume for 0 °C, 101.325 kPa, pure element. For individual isotopes except deuterium, density of base element is used.
  4. ↑ Prices of hydrogen produced by distributed steam methane reforming, as predicted by H2A Production Model from United States Department of Energy, [9] assuming price of natural gas of US$3/MMBtu (US$10/MWh; US$0.10/m3). Does not include cost of storage and distribution.
  5. ↑ 99.8% pure compressed deuterium gas, in lot size of 850 L (142 g). Also sold by same supplier in the form of heavy water at price of 3940 USD per kg deuterium. [12] In 2016, Iran sold 32 tons of heavy water to United States for 1336 USD per kg deuterium. [13]
  6. ↑ Crude helium sold to non-government users in United States in 2018. In the same year, stockpiles of US government helium were sold on auctions for average price of US$0.00989/L. [15]
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Spot market price range on 3 February 2020.
  8. ↑ Min. 99% pure.
  9. ↑ Market price on 5 February 2020
  10. ↑ Min. 99% pure.
  11. 1 2 3 4 Average price in November 2019. Data from China Petroleum and Chemical Industry Federation.
  12. ↑ In the form of boric acid, price per boron contained. Min. 99% pure.
  13. ↑ In the form of anthracite, price per carbon contained, assuming 90% carbon content. There is a wide variation of price of carbon depending on its form. Lower ranks of coal can be less expensive, for example sub-bituminous coal can cost around US$0.038/kg carbon. [19] Graphite flakes can cost around US$0.9/kg carbon. [20] Price of synthetic industrial diamond for grinding and polishing can range from 1200 to 13300 USD/kg, while cost per weight of large synthetic diamonds for industrial applications can be on the order of million dollars per kilogram. [21]
  14. ↑ As liquid nitrogen.
  15. ↑ As liquid oxygen.
  16. ↑ In the form of anhydrous hydrofluoric acid, price per fluorine contained. Range of prices on Chinese market, week of 1–7 December 2017.
  17. ↑ Approximate European price for buying small quantities.
  18. ↑ Min 99.7% pure industrial grade sodium.
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Price average for entire year 2019.
  20. ↑ Min 99.9% pure.
  21. ↑ High-grade primary aluminium, at London Metal Exchange warehouse.
  22. ↑ Min. 99.1% pure, max. 0.4% iron, 0.4% aluminium, 0.1% calcium. [28] 10–100 mm.
  23. ↑ Min. 99.9% pure yellow phosphorus.
  24. ↑ As chlorine is manufactured together with sodium hydroxide in chloralkali process, relative demand for one product changes the price for the other. When demand for sodium hydroxide is relatively high, chlorine price can fall to arbitrarily low levels, even to zero. [30]
  25. ↑ Liquid argon supply contract for University of Nevada, Las Vegas.
  26. ↑ Min 98.5% pure industrial grade potassium.
  27. ↑ Blocks of 98.5% pure calcium obtained by reduction process.
  28. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Market price on 4 February 2020
  29. ↑ Min. 99.99% pure.
  30. ↑ Min. 99.6% pure titanium sponge.
  31. ↑ Min. 99.5% pure.
  32. ↑ Min. 99.2% pure.
  33. ↑ Electrolytic manganese, min. 99.7% pure.
  34. ↑ L8-10 pig iron. At Tangshan, China.
  35. ↑ Spot price. Min. 99.8% pure. At London Metal Exchange warehouse.
  36. ↑ Primary nickel. Spot price. Min. 99.8% pure. At London Metal Exchange warehouse.
  37. ↑ Spot price. Grade A. [38] At London Metal Exchange warehouse.
  38. ↑ Min. 99.995% pure special high grade zinc metal. Spot price. At London Metal Exchange warehouse.
  39. ↑ Min. 99.99% pure. Free on Board China.
  40. ↑ Ingot. 50 Ω/cm.
  41. ↑ Min. 99.5% pure.
  42. ↑ Selenium powder, min. 99.9% pure.
  43. ↑ Approximate European price for buying small quantities.
  44. ↑ 100 g ampoules of 99.75% pure rubidium metal.
  45. ↑ Min. 99% pure, Ex Works China.
  46. ↑ Min. 99% pure, Free on Board China.
  47. ↑ Zirconium sponge, min. 99% pure.
  48. ↑ Min. 99.9% pure.
  49. ↑ Min. 99.95% pure.
  50. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 This element is transient – it occurs only through decay (and in the case of plutonium, also in traces deposited from supernovae onto Earth).
  51. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 or earlier
  52. ↑ The values reported are present in 85th edition of CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics [44] (and possibly earlier) and remain unchanged to at least 97th edition. [45]
  53. ↑ In the form of medical doses of sodium pertechnetate made on-site in technetium-99m generators. Price per technetium contained. Range of prices for medical doses available in the United States. Technetium-99m has half-life of 6 hours, which limits its ability to be directly traded.
  54. ↑ 99.95% pure.
  55. ↑ 99.95% pure.
  56. ↑ 99.95% pure. London bullion market afternoon fix. In warehouse.
  57. ↑ 99.5% pure. Spot price. At London Metal Exchange warehouse.
  58. ↑ Ingot, min. 99.99% pure.
  59. ↑ Min. 99.99% pure.
  60. ↑ Min. 99.85% pure. Spot price. At London Metal Exchange warehouse.
  61. ↑ Ingot, min. 99.65% pure.
  62. ↑ Min. 99.99% pure. Europe.
  63. ↑ Min 99.5% pure. Spot market price on 2 August 2019.
  64. ↑ Approximate European price for buying small quantities.
  65. ↑ 1 g ampoules of 99.8% pure caesium.
  66. ↑ In the form of chemical-grade barite (barium sulfate) exported from China to United States. Price per barium contained, includes cost, insurance, and freight. Barium sulfate is the primary feedstock for production of barium chemicals. [50]
  67. ↑ Min. 99% pure.
  68. ↑ Min. 99% pure.
  69. ↑ Min. 99% pure, Free on Board China.
  70. ↑ Min. 99% pure, Free on Board China.
  71. ↑ From Periodic Table of the Elements published on website of Radiochemistry Society. There is no further information as to source or specifics of this price.
  72. ↑ Min. 99% pure, Free on Board China.
  73. ↑ Min. 99.999% pure.
  74. ↑ Min. 99.5% pure.
  75. ↑ Min. 99% pure, Free on Board China.
  76. ↑ Min. 99% pure, Free on Board China.
  77. ↑ Min. 99.5% pure.
  78. ↑ Min. 99.5% pure.
  79. ↑ Source lists prices of other rare earth elements (some of which are significantly different than the ones presented in table above):
    • lanthanum – 25 USD/kg
    • cerium – 30 USD/kg
    • praseodymium – 70 USD/kg
    • neodymium – 30 USD/kg
    • samarium – 80 USD/kg
    • europium – 1600 USD/kg
    • gadolinium – 78 USD/kg
    • terbium – 630 USD/kg
    • dysprosium – 120 USD/kg
    • holmium – 350 USD/kg
    • erbium – 180 USD/kg
    • thulium – 3000 USD/kg
    • ytterbium – 484 USD/kg
    • lutetium – 4000 USD/kg
    • yttrium – 96 USD/kg
  80. ↑ Price quotes from Canadian producer, for 1 kg order. 99.5–99.99% purity, Free on Board Vancouver, Canada.
  81. ↑ Min. 99.99% pure.
  82. ↑ Min. 99.99% pure.
  83. ↑ Unwrought hafnium.
  84. ↑ Min. 99.95% pure. Ex Works China.
  85. ↑ Powder, particle size 2–10 μm, 99.7% pure. Free on Board China.
  86. ↑ 99.99% pure.
  87. ↑ Fastmarkets Price [56] and Chart [57] Creator. Mid-market price from price table. Year of latest price data (2016) read from chart. Archived: table, chart (5, 7, 50, 1200 data points)
  88. ↑ 99.95% pure.
  89. ↑ 99.95% pure. London bullion market morning fix. In warehouse.
  90. ↑ 99.9% pure. Afternoon London gold fix.
  91. ↑ Average European Union price of 99.99% pure mercury.
  92. ↑ Min. 99.97% pure. Spot price. At London Metal Exchange warehouse.
  93. ↑ Refined bismuth, min. 99.99% pure.
  94. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Available from Oak Ridge National Laboratory as reported in CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics . Price does not include packing costs. The values reported are present in Handbook's 85th edition [44] (and possibly earlier) and remain unchanged to at least 97th edition. [45]
  95. ↑ Only under a tenth of microgram of astatine has ever been produced. [44] Most stable isotope has half-life of 8.1 hours.
  96. ↑ Used in brachytherapy until 1960s, [59] currently radon is not used commercially. [60]
  97. ↑ Only quantities of the order of millions of atoms have been obtained for research. [61] Most stable isotope, 223Fr, has half-life of 22 minutes. Francium has no commercial or medical uses. [60]
  98. ↑ Radium was historically used in the treatment of cancer, but stopped being used when more effective treatments were introduced. As medical facilities had to pay for its disposal, its price can be considered negative. [62]
  99. ↑ As 99.9% pure thorium oxide, price per thorium contained. Free on Board port of entry, duty paid.
  100. ↑ In 1959–1961 Great Britain Atomic Energy Authority produced 125 g of 99.9% pure protactinium at a cost of $500000, giving the cost of 4000000 USD per kg. [44] Periodic Table of Elements at Los Alamos National Laboratory website at one point listed protactinium-231 as available from Oak Ridge National Laboratory at a price of 280000 USD/kg. [64]
  101. ↑ Mainly as triuranium octoxide, price per uranium contained.
  102. ↑ Periodic Table published by Pomona College Chemistry Department lists neptunium-237 as available from Oak Ridge National Laboratory at 660 USD/g plus packing costs.
  103. ↑ Certified reference material sample in the form of plutonium(IV) oxide, price per plutonium-239 contained.
  104. ↑ This source also lists price of Americium-243 as 180 USD/mg, which is much higher than reported in CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics and used in this table.
  105. ↑ Available from Oak Ridge National Laboratory as reported in Nuclear Weapons FAQ.
  106. ↑ Only microgram quantities have ever been produced. [44] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 471.7 days.
  107. ↑ Only tracer amounts have ever been produced. [44] [69] : 13.2.6.  Most stable known isotope has half-life of 100.5 days.
  108. ↑ Only around 106 atoms have been produced in experiments. [69] : 13.3.6.  Most stable known isotope has half-life of 51 days.
  109. ↑ Only around 105 atoms have been produced in experiments. [69] : 13.4.6.  Most stable known isotope has half-life of 58 minutes.
  110. ↑ Only around 1000 atoms have been produced in experiments. [69] : 13.5.6.  Most stable known isotope has half-life of 11 hours.
  111. ↑ Only a few thousand atoms have been produced in experiments. [44] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 2.5 hours.
  112. ↑ Atoms of dubnium have been prepared experimentally at a rate of at most one per minute. [70] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 29 hours.
  113. ↑ Only tens of atoms have been produced in experiments. [71] The most stable known isotope has half-life of 14 minutes.
  114. ↑ Only tens of atoms have been produced in experiments. [72] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 1 minute.
  115. ↑ Only tens of atoms have been produced in experiments. [72] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 16 seconds.
  116. ↑ Only produced in experiments on a per-atom basis. [73] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 8 seconds.
  117. ↑ Only produced in experiments on a per-atom basis. [73] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 9.6 seconds.
  118. ↑ Only produced in experiments on a per-atom basis. [73] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 2.1 minutes.
  119. ↑ Only tens of atoms have been produced in experiments. [72] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 29 seconds.
  120. ↑ As of 2015, less than 100 atoms have been produced in experiments. [74] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 8 seconds.
  121. ↑ As of 2015, less than 100 atoms have been produced in experiments. [74] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 1.9 seconds.
  122. ↑ As of 2015, less than 100 atoms have been produced in experiments. [74] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 0.65 seconds.
  123. ↑ As of 2015, less than 100 atoms have been produced in experiments. [74] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 53 ms.
  124. ↑ As of 2015, less than 100 atoms have been produced in experiments. [74] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 51 ms.
  125. ↑ As of 2015, less than ten atoms have been produced in experiments. [74] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 0.7 ms.

Related Research Articles

Bohrium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Bh and atomic number 107. It is named after Danish physicist Niels Bohr. As a synthetic element, it can be created in particle accelerators but is not found in nature. All known isotopes of bohrium are highly radioactive; the most stable known isotope is 270Bh with a half-life of approximately 2.4 minutes, though the unconfirmed 278Bh may have a longer half-life of about 11.5 minutes.

A chemical element is a chemical substance whose atoms all have the same number of protons. The number of protons is called the atomic number of that element. For example, oxygen has an atomic number of 8, meaning each oxygen atom has 8 protons in its nucleus. Atoms of the same element can have different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei, known as isotopes of the element. Two or more atoms can combine to form molecules. Some elements are formed from molecules of identical atoms, e. g. atoms of hydrogen (H) form diatomic molecules (H2). Chemical compounds are substances made of atoms of different elements; they can have molecular or non-molecular structure. Mixtures are materials containing different chemical substances; that means (in case of molecular substances) that they contain different types of molecules. Atoms of one element can be transformed into atoms of a different element in nuclear reactions, which change an atom's atomic number.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deuterium</span> Isotope of hydrogen with one neutron

Deuterium (hydrogen-2, symbol 2H or D, also known as heavy hydrogen) is one of two stable isotopes of hydrogen; the other is protium, or hydrogen-1, 1H. The deuterium nucleus (deuteron) contains one proton and one neutron, whereas the far more common 1H has no neutrons. Deuterium has a natural abundance in Earth's oceans of about one atom of deuterium in every 6,420 atoms of hydrogen. Thus, deuterium accounts for about 0.0156% by number (0.0312% by mass) of all hydrogen in the ocean: 4.85×1013 tonnes of deuterium – mainly as HOD (or 1HO2H or 1H2HO) and only rarely as D2O (or 2H2O) (Deuterium Oxide, also known as Heavy Water)– in 1.4×1018 tonnes of water. The abundance of 2H changes slightly from one kind of natural water to another (see Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Einsteinium</span> Chemical element with atomic number 99 (Es)

Einsteinium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Es and atomic number 99. It is named after Albert Einstein and is a member of the actinide series and the seventh transuranium element.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Heavy water</span> Form of water

Heavy water is a form of water in which hydrogen atoms are all deuterium rather than the common hydrogen-1 isotope that makes up most of the hydrogen in normal water. The presence of the heavier isotope gives the water different nuclear properties, and the increase in mass gives it slightly different physical and chemical properties when compared to normal water.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lithium</span> Chemical element with atomic number 3 (Li)

Lithium is a chemical element; it has symbol Li and atomic number 3. It is a soft, silvery-white alkali metal. Under standard conditions, it is the least dense metal and the least dense solid element. Like all alkali metals, lithium is highly reactive and flammable, and must be stored in vacuum, inert atmosphere, or inert liquid such as purified kerosene or mineral oil. It exhibits a metallic luster. It corrodes quickly in air to a dull silvery gray, then black tarnish. It does not occur freely in nature, but occurs mainly as pegmatitic minerals, which were once the main source of lithium. Due to its solubility as an ion, it is present in ocean water and is commonly obtained from brines. Lithium metal is isolated electrolytically from a mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride.

Mendelevium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Md and atomic number 101. A metallic radioactive transuranium element in the actinide series, it is the first element by atomic number that currently cannot be produced in macroscopic quantities by neutron bombardment of lighter elements. It is the third-to-last actinide and the ninth transuranic element and the first transfermium. It can only be produced in particle accelerators by bombarding lighter elements with charged particles. Seventeen isotopes are known; the most stable is 258Md with half-life 51.59 days; however, the shorter-lived 256Md is most commonly used in chemistry because it can be produced on a larger scale.

Meitnerium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Mt and atomic number 109. It is an extremely radioactive synthetic element. The most stable known isotope, meitnerium-278, has a half-life of 4.5 seconds, although the unconfirmed meitnerium-282 may have a longer half-life of 67 seconds. The element was first synthesized in August 1982 by the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research near Darmstadt, Germany, and it was named after Lise Meitner in 1997.

Nobelium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol No and atomic number 102. It is named after Alfred Nobel, the inventor of dynamite and benefactor of science. A radioactive metal, it is the tenth transuranium element, the second transfermium, and is the penultimate member of the actinide series. Like all elements with atomic number over 100, nobelium can only be produced in particle accelerators by bombarding lighter elements with charged particles. A total of twelve nobelium isotopes are known to exist; the most stable is 259No with a half-life of 58 minutes, but the shorter-lived 255No is most commonly used in chemistry because it can be produced on a larger scale.

Rutherfordium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Rf and atomic number 104. It is named after physicist Ernest Rutherford. As a synthetic element, it is not found in nature and can only be made in a particle accelerator. It is radioactive; the most stable known isotope, 267Rf, has a half-life of about 48 minutes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Technetium</span> Chemical element with atomic number 43 (Tc)

Technetium is a chemical element; it has symbol Tc and atomic number 43. It is the lightest element whose isotopes are all radioactive. Technetium and promethium are the only radioactive elements whose neighbours in the sense of atomic number are both stable. All available technetium is produced as a synthetic element. Naturally occurring technetium is a spontaneous fission product in uranium ore and thorium ore, or the product of neutron capture in molybdenum ores. This silvery gray, crystalline transition metal lies between manganese and rhenium in group 7 of the periodic table, and its chemical properties are intermediate between those of both adjacent elements. The most common naturally occurring isotope is 99Tc, in traces only.

Isotope separation is the process of concentrating specific isotopes of a chemical element by removing other isotopes. The use of the nuclides produced is varied. The largest variety is used in research. By tonnage, separating natural uranium into enriched uranium and depleted uranium is the largest application. In the following text, mainly uranium enrichment is considered. This process is crucial in the manufacture of uranium fuel for nuclear power plants and is also required for the creation of uranium-based nuclear weapons. Plutonium-based weapons use plutonium produced in a nuclear reactor, which must be operated in such a way as to produce plutonium already of suitable isotopic mix or grade.

Livermorium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Lv and atomic number 116. It is an extremely radioactive element that has only been created in a laboratory setting and has not been observed in nature. The element is named after the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in the United States, which collaborated with the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna, Russia, to discover livermorium during experiments conducted between 2000 and 2006. The name of the laboratory refers to the city of Livermore, California, where it is located, which in turn was named after the rancher and landowner Robert Livermore. The name was adopted by IUPAC on May 30, 2012. Six isotopes of livermorium are known, with mass numbers of 288–293 inclusive; the longest-lived among them is livermorium-293 with a half-life of about 80 milliseconds. A seventh possible isotope with mass number 294 has been reported but not yet confirmed.

Copernicium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Cn and atomic number 112. Its known isotopes are extremely radioactive, and have only been created in a laboratory. The most stable known isotope, copernicium-285, has a half-life of approximately 30 seconds. Copernicium was first created in February 1996 by the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research near Darmstadt, Germany. It was named after the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus on his 537th anniversary.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Precious metal</span> Rare, naturally occurring metallic chemical element of high economic and cultural value

Precious metals are rare, naturally occurring metallic chemical elements of high economic value. Precious metals, particularly the noble metals, are more corrosion resistant and less chemically reactive than most elements. They are usually ductile and have a high lustre. Historically, precious metals were important as currency but they are now regarded mainly as investment and industrial raw materials. Gold, silver, platinum, and palladium each have an ISO 4217 currency code.

The synthesis of precious metals involves the use of either nuclear reactors or particle accelerators to produce these elements.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Isotopes of hydrogen</span>

Hydrogen (1H) has three naturally occurring isotopes: 1H, 2H, and 3H. 1H and 2H are stable, while 3H has a half-life of 12.32(2) years. Heavier isotopes also exist; all are synthetic and have a half-life of less than 1 zeptosecond (10−21 s). Of these, 5H is the least stable, while 7H is the most.

Helium (2He) has nine known isotopes, but only helium-3 (3He) and helium-4 (4He) are stable. All radioisotopes are short-lived; the longest-lived is 6He with half-life 806.92(24) milliseconds. The least stable is 10He, with half-life 260(40) yoctoseconds, though 2He may have an even shorter half-life.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Technetium-99</span> Radioactive isotope produced by fission of uranium

Technetium-99 (99Tc) is an isotope of technetium which decays with a half-life of 211,000 years to stable ruthenium-99, emitting beta particles, but no gamma rays. It is the most significant long-lived fission product of uranium fission, producing the largest fraction of the total long-lived radiation emissions of nuclear waste. Technetium-99 has a fission product yield of 6.0507% for thermal neutron fission of uranium-235.

Deuterium-depleted water (DDW) is water which has a lower concentration of deuterium than occurs naturally at sea level on Earth.

References

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