Proto-Celtic religion refers to the belief systems attributed to the speakers of the Proto-Celtic language, and encompasses mythological themes, legendary narratives, folk traditions and cosmological concepts that can be reconstructed for early Celtic culture. Proto-Celtic is generally dated to the Late Bronze Age (c. 1200–900 BC), and any reconstruction of Proto-Celtic religion therefore predates the historically attested religions of the Ancient Celts.
Through the comparative method, Celtic philologists and historical linguists have proposed reconstructions of deities, mythic figures, ritual concepts, and place-names, with varying degrees of scholarly confidence (reconstructed forms are conventionally marked with an asterisk). These reconstructions draw primarily on linguistic evidence and comparative analysis, and are supplemented by later literary, epigraphic, and archaeological sources. Modern scholarship therefore stresses methodological restraint, treating Proto-Celtic religion as a constellation of related traditions rather than a fully reconstructible, homogeneous belief system.
According to linguist John T. Koch, the period c. 1200–900 BC is appropriate for the existence of a unified, and possibly geographically expansive, Proto-Celtic language. [1] The Proto-Celtic homeland is generally associated in scholarship with the Urnfield culture (c. 1300–700 BC) and the early Hallstatt Iron Age (c. 800–750 BC) in Central Europe. [2]
The period around 900 BC is commonly identified with the breakup of Proto-Celtic into distinct branches (Hispano-Celtic versus Gallo-Brittonic and Goidelic, or Continental versus Insular Celtic). [1]
The beliefs of the Proto-Celtic speakers cannot be reconstructed as a coherent or unified system, as no direct descriptions or indigenous religious writings survive from the Proto-Celtic period. [3] Reconstruction instead relies on a combination of indirect sources from later periods, including Classical accounts by Greek and Roman authors (such as Caesar, Strabo, and Lucan), ancient inscriptions (notably theonyms and dedicatory formulas), early medieval Irish and Welsh literature, archaeological evidence, and comparative Indo-European linguistics. These sources differ widely in date, genre, and cultural context, and many are shaped by external perspectives or later Christian reinterpretation, providing fragmentary insights into inherited beliefs and practices rather than a systematic theology. [3] [4] Several motifs traditionally described as "Celtic" are also attested in other European traditions, particularly Germanic, [5] suggesting that some elements may reflect shared Indo-European traditions rather than uniquely Celtic religious concepts. [6]
Aspects of Proto-Celtic religion are reconstructed by identifying recurrent patterns across regions and periods. Where semantic continuity can be reasonably established, this also involves comparing cognate religious terms preserved in different Celtic languages. Some elements are considered among the more securely reconstructed aspects of Proto-Celtic paganism, particularly the sacral role of poets (*bardos ), druids (*druwides ), and seers (*wātis ), as well as the recurrence of certain shared divine names (notably * Lugus ). [7] [note 1] A number of shared concepts likewise appear to have been closely tied to the natural environment, including sacred groves (*nemetom ), mountains, lakes, and springs. [9] Despite these common elements, claims of pan-Celtic uniformity are therefore treated with caution in Celtic scholarship, which instead points to a "tangible relationship based upon common inheritance" rather than a fully unified religious system. [7]
The reconstructions presented in this section are proposed by historical linguists and philologists on the basis of the comparative method, which infers earlier linguistic forms through systematic comparison of cognate evidence across related Celtic languages and, where relevant, the wider Indo-European linguistic family. Reconstructed forms are conventionally marked with an asterisk (*), while forms whose attribution to the Proto-Celtic period is uncertain are preceded by a question mark (?).
In the case of religious terminology and mythological motifs, reconstruction is often complicated by the long chronological gap between the Proto-Celtic period (c. 1200–900 BC), the earliest available evidence of ancient Celtic religious beliefs (mainly from the late 1st millennium BC to the early 1st millennium AD), and the medieval Celtic textual traditions (c. 7th–12th centuries AD).
| Proto-Celtic reconstruction | Ancient | Goidelic | Brittonic | Etymology | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *Belenos [10] | Gaul.Belenus [11] | – | WBelyn [11] | Traditionally derived from PIE *bʰelH- ('white, shining'), although this has come under criticism in recent scholarship. [10] | The river name Bienne and the place name Bienne attest of a feminine form *Belenā. [10] His widespread attestation among ancient Celtic peoples may point to a Common Celtic origin of the cult. [11] See Belenos for further discussion. |
| ? *Bodwos [12] [13] | – | OIr.Bodb [12] [13] | – | From Celtic–Germanic *bhodhwo- ('battle, fight'). [14] [13] | Name of a war divinity. Also attested as a personal name in Gaulish Boduos. A term common to Celtic and Germanic, where a war-goddess is known as Badu-henna. The meaning 'crow', a bird symbolising the carnage in battle, is secondary in Celtic languages. [12] [14] Middle Irish bodb must be understood as the 'bird on the battlefield and manifestation of the war-goddess'. [13] See Bodb Derg and Badb for further discussion. |
| *Brigantī ~ Brigantia [15] | Gaul.*Brigantia [16] | OIr.Brigit [15] | OBritt.Brigantia [15] | From PIE *bherǵh- ('be high, hill'). [15] | The stem Brigant- is attested in numerous river names (which are typically deified in ancient Celtic cultures), such as Briande , Briance , Bregenzer , or Brent , and in toponyms such as Bragança (< *Brigantia). [16] See Brigid and Brigantia (goddess) for further discussion. |
| *Flitawī [17] | Gaul.Litaui [17] | OIr.Letha [18] | OWLitau, OBret.Letau [17] | From PIE *plth2wih2 ('the Broad One, i.e. Earth'). [17] | Derived from an epithet of the PIE earth-goddess, *pl̥th₂éwih₂ (the 'Broad One'; cf. Sanskrit Pṛth(i)vī ). Names for Brittany in medieval Celtic languages. [19] See Litavis and Dʰéǵʰōm for further discussion. |
| *Gobann- [20] | Gaul.Cobanno [21] [20] | OIr.Goibniu [20] | MWGovannon [20] | From PCelt. *goban- ('smith'). [21] | The Gaulish, Irish and Welsh forms diverge and are reconstructed as *Gobannos, as Gobeniū ~ *Gobanniō, and as Gobannonos, respectively. [21] [20] Despite this, they regarded as cognate figures by modern scholars. [22] See Gobannus, Goibniu and Gofannon for further discussion. |
| ? Kaiko- [23] | – | OIr.Cáech [23] | – | Cognate with PGerm. *haihaz ('one-eyed'; cf. ONHárr) and, with a slightly different meaning, with PIt. *kaikos ('blind'). [23] | Possibly a divine epithet meaning 'One-Eyed, blind in one eye', comparable to ONHárr, a byname of Óðinn. [24] Hyllested notes that Lug closes one eye in a ritual context, while one-eyedness is a defining trait of Óðinn in Germanic mythology; Koch further points to destructive one-eyed figures in Early Irish tradition, such as Ingcél Cáech in Togail Bruidne Da Derga and Balor in Cath Maige Tuired . [23] Also attested as a noun in OCo.cuic and MWcoec ('blind, one-eyed, squinting'). [23] |
| ?*Kaleto-bolkos [25] | – | OIr. Caladbolg [25] | MW Caledfwlch [25] | From PCelt. *kaleto- ('hard') attached to *bolko- ('gap'). [25] | The compound may mean 'hard cleft', 'cleaving what is hard', or 'cleaving through the hardship [of battle]', senses fitting the sword's role in the Táin. It remains unclear whether this reflects a Common Celtic inheritance or later inter-Celtic borrowings. [25] See Caladbolg and Excalibur for further discussion. |
| *Lugus [26] | Gaul.Lugus,CIb.Luguei [26] | OIr. Lug [26] | MW Llew [26] | Unclear etymology. [26] | At the origin of the PCelt. compound *Lugu-deks ('serving Lugus'; cf. Gaul.Lugudeca, OIr.Lugaid). [26] According to Koch, Caesar's description of the Gaulish Mercury 'inventor of all crafts' echoes Lug's epithet samildánach ('possessing many skills'), pointing to a shared conception as the divine entity of an itinerant Celtic artisan class. [27] See Lugus for further discussion. |
| *Makwonos | Gaul.Maponos [28] | OIr. *Maccan Oc (> Macán ) [29] | OBritt.Mapono,MW Mabon [28] [30] | An n-stem of PCelt.*makwo- ('son'). [31] | Most commentators advance that Maponos contributes to the conception of the Welsh Mabon. The deity is also equated with the Irish Angus Óg, especially when he is referred to by the patronymic Mac Óc. [32] See Maponos for further discussion. |
| *Mātronā | Gaul. Matrona [33] | – | MW Modron [28] | An n-stem of PCelt. *mātīr, gen. *mātros ('mother'). [33] | Name of mother goddesses worshipped in ancient Gaul and Britain. Gave rise to the Welsh Modron and Madrun, both of whom are mythical mothers. [34] See Matronae for further discussion. |
| *Nowdont- [35] | Nodonti, Nodenti [35] [36] | MIr. Nuadu [35] [36] | MW Nudd [35] [36] | Unclear etymology. [35] | Ancient Celtic god associated with dogs and healing and aquatic quality. [37] Nodenti is the dative singular of *Nodens. [35] See Nodens for further discussion. |
| *Og(o)miyos [38] [39] | Gaul. Ogmios [38] | MIr. Ogma [38] | – | A yo-derivate of PCelt. *ogmos (perhaps 'path, orbit'). [40] | Helmut Birkhan has questioned the link between Gaulish Ogmios, Irish Ogma, and Old Welsh Oumid, while allowing that the discrepancies might be partly explained by a syllable loss in an earlier *Ogomios or *Ogumios. [39] |
| ? *Olo-(p)atīr [23] | – | MIr.Ollathair [23] | – | Identical to PGmc *Ala-fader (cf. Old Norse Alföðr). [23] | An epithet meaning 'all-father', used as a byname of the Dagda. It has been compared with the Old Norse Alföðr, commonly used for Odin. Perhaps from a shared Celtic-Germanic epithet *Olo-patēr. [41] |
| *Tonaros > *Toranos [42] [43] | Gaul. Tanarus, Taranis [43] | – | OBritt.Tanaro,Pict. Taran [43] [44] | Identical to the Proto-Germanic Thunder-god *Þun(a)raz (Thor). From PIE *(s)tenh₂- ('thunder'). [42] [43] | Dedications to Taranis have been found across Europe (France, Germany, Britain, Northern Italy, eastern Europe), thus widespread Celtic depictions of thunderbolt-wielding deities may represent the god. [45] See Taranis for further discussion. |
| ?*Tworko-trētos [46] | – | OIr.Torc Tríath [46] | W Twrch Trwyth [46] | From PCelt. *tworko- ('boar') attached to *trētos-. [46] | The Irish word tríath means 'king', 'boar' or 'sea, wave', aptly reflected in Twrch Trwyth's portrayal as a noble boar and a sea-crossing swimmer. [47] The Welsh spelling trwyt, which does occur, could be the exact cognate of triath, implying PCelt. *trētos. [46] Along with Caladbolg ~ Caledfwlch and Findabair ~ Gwenhwyfar, this figure could reflect a nucleus of old inter-Celtic borrowings or inherited elements in Arthurian tradition. [48] See Twrch Trwyth for further discussion. |
| *Windos [49] [50] | Gaul.Vindonnus,Galat.Uindieinos [51] | OIr.Finn (mac Cumhaill) [50] | WGwyn (ap Nudd) [50] | 'The White One'. From PCelt. *windo- ('white'). [49] | Finn can also denote spiritual 'enlightenment' or 'blessing', a sense shared with Welsh gwyn and Breton gwenn, and related verbs are found in Old Irish ro·finnadar('discovers, comes to know') and Welsh gwn ('I know'), leading Koch to argue for an archaic mythic motif in which a hero moves from being finn ('fair-haired') to becoming esoterically 'blessed' or 'self-revealed'. [50] Gaul.Vindonnus (epithet of Apollo) is linguistically related, and may contribute attributes to later figures beginning with Find-, Finn-. [52] See Gwyn ap Nudd and Fionn mac Cumhaill for further discussion. |
| ? *Windo-sēbrā [53] | – | OIr. Findabair [53] | MWGwenhwyfar [53] | A compound of windo- ('white') attached to a feminine form of *sēbro- ('demon, spectre'). [53] | Like Gwenhwyfar, Findabair causes the deaths of many heroes in the Táin Bó Cuailnge. Their characters may share a common origin, either from a Common Celtic motif or as the result of later inter-Celtic borrowings. [48] The original meaning was 'white spectre'. [53] See Guinevere for further discussion. |
| Note: Gaul. = Gaulish; Gall. = Gallaecian; Galat. = Galatian; Lep. = Lepontic; CIb. = Celtiberian; OIr. = Old Irish; MIr. = Middle Irish; OBritt. = Old Brittonic; OW = Old Welsh; MW = Middle Welsh; Pict. = Pictish; OBret. = Old Breton; MBret. = Middle Breton; OCo. = Old Cornish | |||||
| Proto-Celtic reconstruction | Meaning | Ancient | Goidelic | Brittonic | Etymology | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *abankos [54] | 'small (aquatic) creature' | – | Mlr.abacc [54] | MWafanc, MBret. avank [54] | Probably from PCelt. *abon- ('river'), itself from PIE *h2ep- ('water'). [54] | Denoting small creatures, presumably from the waters (Mlr.abacc means 'dwarf', MWafanc 'dwarf, beaver', and MBret.avank 'dwarf, sea monster'). [55] [54] Also used as an equivalent to luchorpán (> leprechaun ) in Irish. [55] |
| *branos [56] | 'raven' | Gaul.brano- [56] | OIr.bran [56] | MWbran, OBret.-bran, Co.bran [56] | Unclear etymology. Perhaps related to Lith.varna 'raven' (< *worno-), or a loanword from an unknown source. [56] | In Celtic traditions, the crow carries strong martial and supernatural associations, particularly with battlefields and fallen warriors. In Irish mythology, the war goddess Bodb frequently appears in crow form. The probable existence of a similar deity in Brittonic tradition may explain the feminisation of brân as a common noun in Welsh. [57] See also Brân the Blessed. |
| *dēwos [58] | 'deity' | Gaul.deuo-, CIb.teuio- [58] | OIr.día [58] | OWduiu, MBret.doe, OCo.duy [58] | From PIE *deywos ('god, deity'). [58] | See Dyēus for further discussion. |
| *drougos [58] | 'phantom, ghost' | – | OIr.airdrech [58] | – | Identical to PGerm. *draugaz (cf. ONdraugr 'ghost'). [59] | OIr.airdrech ('sprite, phantom') derives from *(p)ari-drougo-. Perhaps a unique Celto-Germanic secondary meaning from the PIE word reflected in Avestan draoγa- ('lie'). [59] |
| *dwosyos [60] | 'incubus, daemon' | Gaul. dusios [61] | – | Bret.Diz, Co.Dus [61] | Cognate with Lith.dvasià ('breath, spirit, soul') and MHGgetwās ('spirit, ghost'). [61] [60] | The Gaulish word is attested late by Christian authors, denoting an incubus demon (one that sexually abuses women), probably originally a kind of faun. [61] Likely reflected in Bret.Diz ('devil') and Co.Dus. Source of Romansch dischöl ('a kind of malevolent goblin'), Wallon dûhon, and Basque tusuri ('devil'). [61] |
| *goistos [59] | ? 'supernatural spirit' | – | OIr.gáes [58] | – | Identical to PGerm. *gaistaz ('supernatural spirit') < Pre-Ger.*ghoistoz. [59] | The original meaning in Celtic is unclear. OIr.gáes means 'sagacity, intelligence, acuteness'. [59] |
| *morā [62] [60] | 'female demon' | – | MIr.mor- [62] | – | From PIE *moreh2 ('nightly spirit, bad dream'). [62] | OIr. mor-rígain ('queen of bad dreams') is a war-goddess and female malicious entity. The motif appears to be shared with Germanic *marōn (a malevolent female spirit associated with bad dreams) and Slavic *morà ('nightly spirit, bad dream'; e.g. kikimora ). [63] [60] See Mare (folklore) and The Morrígan for further discussion. |
| *sēbro- [53] | 'demon, spectre' | – | OIr.síabar [53] | MW -hwyfar [53] | Unclear etymology. [53] | The name was probably inherited from the pagan Celtic mythology. [53] Cf. also OIr.soeb ('crooked, misleading, false'), possibly from PCelt. *soybo-, with the o-grade in the root. [53] |
| *skāhslo- [64] [59] | 'demon, supernatural being' | – | OIr.scál [64] | MWyscwal [64] | Perhaps related to *skek- ('move, stir'). [64] Cognate to Gothic skōhsl ('demon, evil spirit') < *skōhsla-. [59] | OIr.scál ('supernatural or superhuman being, phantom, giant, hero; the god Lug'), MWyscaul ('hero, champion, warrior') and Goth.skōhsl ('evil spirit, demon') point to a shared term in Proto-Celtic and Proto-Germanic. [59] |
| Note: Gaul. = Gaulish; Gall. = Gallaecian; Lep. = Lepontic; CIb. = Celtiberian; OIr. = Old Irish; MIr. = Middle Irish; OBritt. = Old Brittonic; OW = Old Welsh; MW = Middle Welsh; Pict. = Pictish; OBret. = Old Breton; MBret. = Middle Breton; OCo. = Old Cornish | ||||||
| Proto-Celtic reconstruction | Meaning | Ancient | Goidelic | Brittonic | Etymology | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *albiyos [65] [66] | 'upper world' | Gaul.albio- [65] [66] | – | OWelbid [65] [66] | From PIE *h2elbho- ('white'). [66] | The primary meaning is 'upper world' (< 'luminous world'), in opposition to the underworld. [65] [66] OWelbid underwent a semantic shift to simply signify 'world'. [65] |
| *ande-dubnos [67] | 'other world, world of the dead' | Gaul.antumnos [67] | – | MWannw(f)n [67] | From PCelt.ande- ('below') attached to *dubnos. [67] | While Continental, Irish, and Brittonic sources broadly converge in depicting supernatural realms associated with the dead, the gods, and liminal access points, it remains unclear whether these form a distinctively Celtic complex or reflect motifs shared more widely across European traditions. [6] See also Gaul.anderon, genetive plural of *anderos, interpreted as meaning 'infernal' (perhaps 'gods of the underworld') and cognate with Lat.īnferus and Skt ádhara-. [68] See Annwn for further discussion. |
| *bitus [66] | 'world (of the living)' | Gaul.bitu- [69] | OIr.bith [69] | OWbid,OBret.bit, OCo.bit [69] | From PIE *gwiH-tu- ('life'). [69] | According to the vertical cosmology of the three worlds, bitu- likely designates the intermediate world of humans and living beings, situated at the center of an axis between the albio- (sky) and the dubno- (underworld). [70] See Bituitus and Bith . |
| *dubnos [71] | 'lower world' | Gaul.dumno- [71] | OIr.domun [71] | MWdwfn,MBret.doun, Co.down [71] | From PIE *dhewb(h)- ('deep'). [71] | This word is at the origin of OIr.domain ('deep') and domun ('world'), and underlies MWAnnwfn ('Otherworld, lower world'). [72] [71] See Dumnonii and Damnonii (tribes), Dumnonia (kingdom) and Fir Domnann . |
| Note: Gaul. = Gaulish; Gall. = Gallaecian; Lep. = Lepontic; CIb. = Celtiberian; OIr. = Old Irish; MIr. = Middle Irish; OBritt. = Old Brittonic; OW = Old Welsh; MW = Middle Welsh; Pict. = Pictish; OBret. = Old Breton; MBret. = Middle Breton; OCo. = Old Cornish | ||||||
| Proto-Celtic reconstruction | Meaning | Ancient | Goidelic | Brittonic | Etymology | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *adbertā [73] | 'offering, victim' | – | OIr.edbart [73] | OWaperth [73] | From PCelt. *ad- ('to') attached to *ber-tā < *ber-o- ('carry, bring, bear'). [74] | The OIr. word is the verbal noun of ad-opair < *ad-uss-ber-o ('sacrifices, offers'). [73] |
| *adgaryos [75] [76] | 'summoner' (? of the deities) | Gaul.adgarion [75] | OIr.accrae [75] | – | From PCelt. *ad- ('to') attached to *gar-yo- ('call, cry'). [76] | See also OIr.ad-gair ('summon, subpoena') < *ad-gar(i)et. The OIr.accrae ('complaint') <*ad-garion is also only used in legal contexts, although the original PCelt. meaning may have been 'to summon the deities [as witnesses]' (cf. OIr.deogaire 'seer' < *dewo-garios 'who summons the deity'). [75] |
| *anamones [77] [78] | 'soul' | – | OIr.anim [77] | MBret.eneff,anaffoun, Co.enef [77] [78] | From PIE *h2enh1-mon- ('breath'). [77] | The Insular Celtic forms were influenced by the Lat. cognate anima. [77] See also anaon ('souls of the dead' in Breton mythology). [78] |
| *anation [79] | 'soul' | Gaul.anatia [79] | – | MWenaid [79] | From PIE *h2enh1-t-. [79] | Gaulish anatia is interpreted as meaning 'the souls' (cf. Welsh enaid 'soul'). The Brythonic personal name Anate-mori is identical to MWeneitfawr ('[having] a great soul'). [79] OIr.anál,OWanadyl, MBret.alazn, Co.anal ('breath') come from *anatlā. [79] [80] |
| *awe- [81] | 'poetic inspiration' | – | OIr.aui [81] | MWawen [81] | Related to PCelt. *awelā ('breeze, wind'), itself from PIE*h2uh1-el- (id.). [81] | The PCelt. reconstruction is difficult because the OIr. and MW forms do not agree. [81] The etymological sense is a 'breathing in' of a gift or genius bestowed by a supernatural source. [82] MoBret.awen ('inspiration') is a loanword from Welsh. [81] |
| *bardos [83] [84] | 'bard, poet' | Gaul.bardo- [83] [84] | MIr.bard [83] [84] | MWbardd, MBret.barz, OCo.barth [83] [84] | From PIE*gʷrH-dʰh₁-o-s ('praise-maker'). [83] [84] | See Bard for further discussion |
| *brihtu- [85] | 'magical formula, incantation' | Gaul.brixta [85] | OIr.bricht [85] | MW -brith, OBret.brith [85] | Perhaps from PIE *bherg̍h- ('enlighten'), or related to PCelt. *berxto- ('bright, beautiful'). [85] | See Brixta for further discussion. |
| *dawnā [86] | 'poem' | – | MIr.dúan [86] | – | From PIE *dh2p-no- ('offering'). [86] | See Aois-dàna , 'people of the arts; poet'. |
| *dedm- [87] | 'rite, ceremony' | – | OIr.deidmea [87] | MWdeuawt, OBret.domot [87] | From PIE *dhedh(h1)m- ('custom'). [87] | The reconstruction of the vowel in PCelt. *dedmV- is difficult: OBret.domot points to *dedmāto- while OIr.deidmea points to *dedmi-. [87] |
| *druwid(e)s [71] [88] | 'priest, druid' | Gaul.druides [71] | OIr.druí [71] | MWdryw [89] | Presumably meaning 'oak-knower', from PIE*dru- ('oak') attached to *weyd- ('see, know'). [71] [89] | The Brittonic forms MWderwydd ('seer') and OBret.dorguid ('prophetic, magical') are parallel formations from *daru-wid- (based on Celtic *daru- 'oak tree') or from *do-are-wid- ('who sees beyond'). [88] [89] OIr.druí and MWdryw could also denote the wren, which, like the raven, was regarded as a prophetic bird in those traditions. [89] See Druid for further discussion. |
| *ferissā [90] | 'religion, belief' | – | OIr.iress [90] | – | Probably from PIE *peri-dh1-teh2. [90] | |
| *frato- [91] | 'good fortune, grace' | Gaul.ratus [91] | OIr.rath [91] | OWrat, OBret. rad-, Co.ras [91] | Probably related to PCel.far-na- ('bestow'). [91] | |
| *kwritus [92] | 'magical transformation, shape' | Gaul.prittus [92] | OIr.cruth [92] | MWpryd, MBret. pred, OCo.prit [92] | From PIE *kwer- ('make, cause'). [92] | See Britain, Prydain and tribe Cruthin. |
| *kwrityos [93] | 'poet' | Gaul.pritios [93] | OIr.Crithe [93] | MWprydydd, OCo.pridit [93] | A yo-derivate of *kwritus. [93] | |
| *karnom [59] | 'ancient stone, funerary monument' | Gaul. *Karnākon [59] | OIr.carn [59] | OWcarn [59] | Probably borrowed from the same non-Indo-European source as PGmc*har(u)gaz. [59] | Cf. also Carnac < Gaul. *Karnākon ('place with pagan stone monuments'). [59] See cairn for further discussion. |
| *kaylo- [94] | 'omen' | Gaul.caelo-, CIb. caeilo- [94] [61] | OIr.-chél [61] | OWcoil(i)ou, OBret. coel, OCo.chuillioc [94] | From PIE*keh2ilo- ('whole, wealthy'). [94] | Source of PCelt.*dus-kaylo- (bad omen'; cf. Gaul.dus-celi-, OIr.do-chél) and *su-kaylo- ('good omen'; cf. Gaul.su-caelo, MWhy-goel). [61] OIr.cél is a loanword from Brythonic. [94] [23] |
| *kentu-samonyo- [95] | 'May' | – | OIr.cétamain [95] | MWkintevin [95] | A compound of *kentu ('first') and *samon- ('summer'). [95] | Meaning 'first summer'. [95] |
| *krābri- [96] | 'devotion, religious practice' | – | OIr.crábud [96] | MWcrefydd [96] | Unclear etymology. [96] | MWcrefydd is built on a yo-suffix and OIr.crábud on an itu-suffix. [96] |
| *kreddī- [97] | 'believe' | – | OIr.creitid [97] | MWcredu, MBret.crediff, OCo.cresy [97] | From PIE *ḱred-dheh1- ('believe, trust'). [97] | The geminate must be recent since PIE *dd would have yielded PCelt. *ss. [97] |
| *kreddīmā [97] | 'faith, believing' | – | OIr.cretem [97] | MBret.critim [97] | Verbal noun of *kreddī-. [97] | |
| *kredro/i [98] | 'relic, sacred object' | – | OIr.cretair [98] | OWcreirriou, MBret.kreir, Co.crêr [98] | Related to *kreddī- ('believe'). [98] | |
| *(f)litu- [99] | 'festival, celebration' | Gaul.litu- [99] [18] | OIr.líth [99] | OBret. lit [99] | Unclear etymology. [99] | The absence of cognates in other Indo-European languages makes the exact form of the PCelt. reconstruction (*flitu- or *litu-) uncertain. [99] |
| *marwo-natu- [100] | 'funerary poem, eulogy' | – | OIr.marbnad [100] | MWmarwnad [100] | A compound of PCelt.*marwo- ('dead') and *natu- ('poem'). [100] | The compound, pertaining to poetic language, can probably be projected back to Proto-Celtic. [100] |
| *meldo- [101] | 'lightning, hammer of the thunder-god' | Gaul.Meldio [101] | – | MWMellt [101] | Cognate with PGmc *meldunjaz and PBalt-Slav.mild-n-. [101] | See Perkwunos |
| *natu- [102] | 'poem, song, incantation' | Gaul.natia, nato- [102] | OIr.nath [102] | MWnad [102] | Probably from PIE *(s)neh1- ('sew'). [102] | The semantic development could be explained in terms of poetic metaphors, whereby a poem is identified with a thread. [102] |
| *nemetom [103] [104] | 'sacred grove, sanctuary' | Gaul.nemēton,CIb.nemeto- [103] [104] | OIr. nemed [103] | OBritt.Nemetona, OW-nivet, OBret.-nimet [103] [104] | A t-stem derived from PIE *némos ('sacrifice'), itself from *nem- ('distribute'), [104] or possibly related to PCelt. *nemos ('heaven'). [103] [105] | Related to or borrowed into PGmc *nemedaz ('holy grove'). Greek (némos) and Latin (nemus) share the meaning 'forest, (holy) clearance', which evolved from the PIE sense 'what is distributed, sacrifice' (cf. Sktnámas- 'worship, honour', Alb.nëmë 'curse, imprecation'). [104] See Nemeton, goddesses Nemetona and Arnemetia, tribe Nemetes. |
| *nemos [103] | 'heaven, sky' | – | OIr.nem [103] | OWnem, OBret.nem, OCo.nef [103] | From PIE *nebhos ('cloud, cloudy sky'). [103] | The irregular *-m- of the Celtic forms is best explained as the result of assimilation (n ...bh > n ...m). [103] |
| *noybo- [106] | 'holy' | Gaul.noibo- [106] [107] | OIr.noíb [107] [107] | – | From PIE *noybhos. [107] | |
| *rūnā [108] | 'secret, magic' | Gaul.-runus(?), Lep.Runatis(?) [108] | OIr.rún [108] | MWrin, MBret.rin, Co.rin- [108] | Related to PGmc *rūnō ('secret, mystery'). [108] | Gaul.Cobrunus (< *com-rūnos 'confident') is probably cognate with MWcyfrin, MBret.queffrin and MIr.comrún ('shared secret, confidence'); Lep.Runatis may be derived from *runo-ātis ('belonging to the secret'). [109] See Runes. |
| *samoni- [110] | 'assembly, (feast of the) first month of the year' | Gaul.Samon- [110] | MIr.Samain [110] | – | From PIE *smHon- ('reunion, assembly'). [110] | Name of a month or feast. The original meaning is best explained as 'assembly [of the living and the dead]' (cf. OIr.bech-samain 'bee-swarm'; MIr.samain '[assembly on] the 1st of November'). Links to PCelt. *samon- ('summer') appear to be folk etymologies. [111] [110] See Samhain for further discussion. |
| *sakro- [112] | 'consecrated, cursed' | Gaul.sacro- [113] [112] | – | MWhagr, MBret.hagr, Co.hager [112] | From PIE *sh2k-ro- ('sacred'). [112] | The Brittonic cognates mean 'ugly', i.e. 'cursed' < 'consecrated to infernal, malevolent deities'. The original meaning was probably close to that of Latin sācer, meaning 'consecrated', but also 'worthy to be sacrificed', 'cursed'. [113] [112] Cognate to Latin sacerdos , 'priest'. [112] |
| *sedo- ~ *sīdos [114] | 'tumulus (inhabited by supernatural beings), peace' | Gaul.sedum, sidum [114] | OIr.síd [114] | MWhedd, OBret.hed [114] | From PIEsēdsgen.sedos ('seat'). [114] | See sidhe . |
| *soyto- [115] | 'magic' | – | – | MWhud, MBret.hud,Co.hus [114] | Probably originally identical to PIE *soito- ('string, rope'), from *seh2i- ('to bind'). [114] [60] Cognate with PGmc *saidaz ('magic, charm') and Lith.saitas ('soothsaying, talisman'). [60] | Source of PCelt.*soyto-lo- ('charming, illusory'). [114] The shift in meaning appears to be unique to Germanic, Celtic, and Baltic. [60] |
| *to-fare-ufo-kan-o- [116] | 'prophesise' | – | OIr.do-aurchain [116] | MWdarogan [116] | From PCelt.to-fare- ('towards'), attached to *ufo- ('under') and *kan-o- ('sing'). [116] | |
| *tonketom [94] | 'fortune, destiny, good luck' | CIb.Tongeta [94] | OIr.tocad*kaylo- [94] | MWtynghet, MBret.tonquaff [94] | Related to PGer. *þinhan- ('to thrive, prosper') < Pre-Ger *ténk-e-. [94] | |
| *wātis [117] | 'seer, sooth-sayer' | Gaul.uáteis [118] [117] | OIr.fáith [117] | – | From PIE *weh2-ti- ('prophet'). Related to PGmc*wōðaz ('possessed, inspired, delirious, raging') > ON Óðr. [23] [117] | Also attested in the Gaulish theonym Uatiounos (< wātio-mno-, 'who prophesies'). See also OIr.fethid ('sees, observes') and OWguetid (< *wet-o- 'say'), perhaps linked to Indo-European divinatory practice combining observation of nature with poetic expression. [118] Latin vātes is probably a Celtic loanword. [23] See vates for further discussion. |
| *wātus [119] | 'poetic inspiration, prophesy' | Gaul.Uatus, Uatuiae [118] | OIr.fáth [119] | MWgwawd [119] | From PIE *weh2-tu- ('prophesy'). [23] [117] | The stem is also found in the Celtic theonym from Belgica Vatumar-. [120] |
| *weletos [121] [122] | 'seer' | Gaul.uelets [122] | OIr.filed [122] | MWgwelet, MBret. guelet [122] | From PIE *wel-o- ('to see'). [121] | OIr.filed is the genitive form of filí ('poet, seer'). The ancient Germanic Weleda , the name of a seeress, is most likely a borrowing from Gaulish *ueletā ('seeress'), with regular Germanic sound shift -t- > -d-. [122] |
| *widlmā [123] | 'seeress, sorceress' | Gaul.uidluas [123] | OIr. Fedelm [123] | Wgwyddon [123] | From PCelt. *wid- ('to see, to know'). [123] | Gaul.uidluas may be a genitive form of *uildua, in which case it may be derived from *widlmā with lenition (like in anuana < *anman- 'name'). [123] |
| *yālo- [124] | 'praise, worship' | – | OIr.áil [124] | MWiawl,OBret.iolent [124] | From PIE *(H)yeh2lo- ('zeal'). [124] | |
| Note: Gaul. = Gaulish; Gall. = Gallaecian; Lep. = Lepontic; CIb. = Celtiberian; OIr. = Old Irish; MIr. = Middle Irish; OBritt. = Old Brittonic; OW = Old Welsh; MW = Middle Welsh; Pict. = Pictish; OBret. = Old Breton; MBret. = Middle Breton; OCo. = Old Cornish | ||||||