Pteridium aquilinum

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Pteridium aquilinum
Adelaarsvaren planten Pteridium aquilinum.jpg
Status TNC G5.svg
Secure  (NatureServe) [1]
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Division: Polypodiophyta
Class: Polypodiopsida
Order: Polypodiales
Family: Dennstaedtiaceae
Genus: Pteridium
Species:
P. aquilinum
Binomial name
Pteridium aquilinum
(L.) Kuhn

Pteridium aquilinum, commonly called bracken , brake, pasture brake, common bracken, and also known as eagle fern, is a species of fern occurring in temperate and subtropical regions in both hemispheres. Originally native to Eurasia and North America, the extreme lightness of its spores has led to it achieving a cosmopolitan distribution.

Contents

Description

Common bracken is a herbaceous perennial plant, deciduous in winter. The large, roughly triangular fronds are produced singly, arising upwards from an underground rhizome, and grow to 0.3–1 metre (1–3+1⁄2 feet) tall; the main stem, or stipe, is up to 1 centimetre (1⁄2 inch) in diameter at the base. It dies back to ground level in autumn. [3] The rhizome grows up to 3.5 metres (11+1⁄2 ft) deep, about 5 cm (2 in) in diameter, and up to 15 m (50 ft) long. Because it regrows in the spring from an underground rhizome, P. aquilinum tends to be found in dense colonies of genetically identical fronds. In the spring as the plant enters its growing cycle, fiddleheads are first sent up from the rhizome. The density and area covered by a single rhizome maximizes that rhizome's chance of biological success when sending up new growth. The new growth presents as vertical stalks, coiled and covered in silver-gray hairs, that can be several feet in height before unfurling into fronds. [4]

Reproduction

Sporangia are formed in sori on the underside of the frond. [5] They are arranged in narrow brown bands, and form spores over July, August and September. [6]

Taxonomy

It was traditionally treated as the sole species in the genus Pteridium (brackens); however, authorities have split and recognised up to 11 species in the genus. It was placed in the genus Pteridium by Friedrich Adalbert Maximilian Kuhn in 1879. [7] Genetic analysis of Pteridium from 100 different locations worldwide has revealed two distinct species and despite the common name "bracken" being shared, the "southern" species is Pteridium esculentum. Though the southern P. esculentum shows little genetic diversity among physically isolated locations, P. aquilinum has distinct groups at the continental scale. However, evidence of long-distance gene flow was found in samples taken from Hawaii that presented elements of both North American and Asian subspecies of P. aquilinum. [8]

Etymology

Common bracken was first described as Pteris aquilina by Carl Linnaeus, in Volume 2 of his Species Plantarum in 1753. The origin of the specific epithet derived from the Latin aquila "eagle". In the reprint of the Flora Suecica in 1755, Linnaeus explains that the name refers to the image of an eagle seen in the transverse section of the root. [9] In spite of this, the opinion has been forwarded that the name pertains to the shape of the mature fronds appearing akin to an eagle's wing. [10] However, medieval scholars, including Erasmus, thought the pattern of the fibres seen in a transverse section of the stipe resembled a double-headed eagle or oak tree.

Distribution and habitat

Bracken is native to Europe, Eastern Asia and North America, [6] but now has an almost cosmopolitan distribution. [11] In the Americas, it is found throughout the continental United States and the Canadian provinces of Ontario, Quebec, and Newfoundland. Its range's northern border extends to southern Alaska, while its southern reaches the northern portions of Mexico, as well as the Greater Antilles in the Caribbean. [6] Weedy in acidic upland pastures of northwestern Europe. [11]

Bracken grows in pastures, deciduous and coniferous woodlands, and hillsides. It prefers acidic soils. [6]

An adaptable plant, bracken readily colonises disturbed areas. It can even be aggressive in countries where it is native, such as England, where it has invaded heather ( Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull) stands on the North Yorkshire moors. [12] In Ireland, bracken is found in open woodland and sandy pastures. [5]

Toxicity

The plant contains the carcinogenic compound ptaquiloside. [13] Ptaquiloside is known to cause hemorrhagic diseases in ruminants, tumors and hematological problems in non-ruminants, and is correlated with esophageal and gastric cancer in humans. [14] [15] Chronic bracken consumption is also associated with upper digestive tract (UDT) squamous cell carcinomas in cattle (ruminants)—with the most aggressive and serious tumors located in the caudal (lower) UDT. [16]

High stomach cancer rates are found in Japan and North Wales, where the young stems are used as a vegetable, but it is unknown whether bracken plays any part or if the cancer can be attributed to another cause. [17] Consumption of ptaquiloside-contaminated milk is thought to contribute to human gastric cancer in the Andean states of Venezuela. [18] The spores have also been implicated as carcinogens. Consumption of contaminated water and meat may be dangerous as well. [19]

However, ptaquiloside is water-soluble, and is reduced by soaking bracken in cool water. [20] Korean and Japanese cooks have traditionally soaked the shoots in water and ash to detoxify the plant before eating. [21] Ptaquiloside also degenerates at room temperature, which explains why the rat studies were done with the toxin stored at −20 °C (−4 °F). [20] At boiling temperature, the carcinogen denatures almost completely. [20] Salt and baking soda also help with volatilizing the chemical. [20]

It has been suggested that selenium supplementation can prevent as well as reverse the immunotoxic effects induced by ptaquiloside from Pteridium aquilinum. [22]

Uses

Food

Commercially packaged warabimochi (bracken jelly) in Japan Warabi mochi 1.jpg
Commercially packaged warabimochi (bracken jelly) in Japan

Despite its established toxicity, P. aquilinum's global distribution—it is the fifth most widely distributed common weed species in the world—means that it has a long history of being consumed in many parts of the world. [14] The toxicity and wide distribution has led to variation in cultural attitudes towards the consumption of the plant. In the United Kingdom where P. aquilinum is extremely successful, the rhizome was once consumed during and after World War I. [23] However the Royal Horticultural Society now explicitly advises against its consumption due to toxicity. [24]

Bracken is a widely eaten vegetable in Korea, Japan, Russian Far East, and parts of China where they have historically been some of the most important wild vegetables consumed. [20] Populations of these countries where bracken is traditionally consumed have been able to access bracken in new locations after immigrating due to P. aquilinum's global ubiquity.

In Korea, bracken is known as gosari. It is soaked, parboiled, and stir-fried, and often eaten as a side dish ( namul ). [25] It is also a classic ingredient of bibimbap. [26]

In Japan, bracken is known as warabi (蕨, ワラビ), and a jelly-like starch made from it is a key ingredient for the chilled dessert warabimochi . As a type of sansai (mountain vegetables), young bracken shoots are steamed, boiled, or cooked in soups. The shoots are also preserved in salt, sake, or miso. [21]

Bracken shoots have been used to produce beer in Siberia, and among indigenous peoples of North America. [21]

The rhizome can be ground into flour to make bread. In the Canary Islands, the rhizome was historically used to make a porridge called gofio. [21]

Bracken leaves are used in the Mediterranean region to filter sheep's milk, and to store freshly made ricotta cheese. [21]

Young fronds of the bracken can be harvested easily and should be cooked for 30 to 60 minutes. Mature bracken is toxic due to thiaminase and can be destroyed by cooking. Should be avoided if not skilled enough to prepare it. [27]

Pharmacology

P. aquilinum has been investigated for its anti-inflammatory and antioxidative properties. [28]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fern</span> Class of vascular plants

The ferns are a group of vascular plants that reproduce via spores and have neither seeds nor flowers. They differ from mosses by being vascular, i.e., having specialized tissues that conduct water and nutrients and in having life cycles in which the branched sporophyte is the dominant phase.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bracken</span> Genus of ferns

Bracken (Pteridium) is a genus of large, coarse ferns in the family Dennstaedtiaceae. Ferns (Pteridophyta) are vascular plants that have alternating generations, large plants that produce spores and small plants that produce sex cells. Brackens are noted for their large, highly divided leaves. They are found on all continents except Antarctica and in all environments except deserts, though their typical habitat is moorland. The genus probably has the widest distribution of any fern in the world.

Haumia-tiketike is the god of all uncultivated vegetative food in Māori mythology. He is particularly associated with the starchy rhizome of the Pteridium esculentum, which became a major element of the Māori diet in former times. He contrasts with Rongo, the god of kūmara and all cultivated food plants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fiddlehead</span> Fronds of a young fern

Fiddleheads or fiddlehead greens are the furled fronds of a fledgling fern, harvested for use as a vegetable.

<i>Osmunda</i> Genus of ferns

Osmunda is a genus of primarily temperate-zone ferns of family Osmundaceae. Five to ten species have been listed for this genus.

<i>Matteuccia</i> Species of fern in the family Onocleaceae

Matteuccia is a genus of ferns with one species: Matteuccia struthiopteris. The species epithet struthiopteris comes from Ancient Greek words στρουθίων (strouthíōn) "ostrich" and πτερίς (pterís) "fern".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cyatheales</span> Order of ferns

The order Cyatheales, which includes most tree ferns, is a taxonomic order of the fern class, Polypodiopsida. No clear morphological features characterize all of the Cyatheales, but DNA sequence data indicate the order is monophyletic. Some species in the Cyatheales have tree-like growth forms from a vertical rhizome, others have shorter or horizontal expanding rhizomes.

<i>Onoclea sensibilis</i> Species of fern

Onoclea sensibilis, the sensitive fern, also known as the bead fern, is a coarse-textured, medium to large-sized deciduous perennial fern. The name comes from its sensitivity to frost, the fronds dying quickly when first touched by it. It is sometimes treated as the only species in Onoclea, but some authors do not consider the genus monotypic.

<i>Diplazium esculentum</i> Species of fern

Diplazium esculentum, the vegetable fern, is an edible fern found throughout Asia and Oceania. It is probably the most commonly consumed fern.

<i>Gymnocarpium dryopteris</i> Species of fern

Gymnocarpium dryopteris, the western oakfern, common oak fern, oak fern, or northern oak fern, is a deciduous fern of the family Cystopteridaceae. It is widespread across much of North America and Eurasia. It has been found in Canada, the United States, Greenland, China, Japan, Korea, Russia, and most of Europe. It is a seedless, vascular plant that reproduces via spores and have a life cycle with alternating, free-living sporophyte and gametophyte phases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dennstaedtiaceae</span> Family of ferns

Dennstaedtiaceae is one of fifteen families in the order Polypodiales, the most derived families within monilophytes (ferns). It comprises 10 genera with ca 240 known species, including one of the world's most abundant ferns, Pteridium aquilinum (bracken). Members of the order generally have large, highly divided leaves and have either small, round intramarginal sori with cup-shaped indusia or linear marginal sori with a false indusium formed from the reflexed leaf margin. The morphological diversity among members of the order has confused past taxonomy, but recent molecular studies have supported the monophyly of the order and the family. The reclassification of Dennstaedtiaceae and the rest of the monilophytes was published in 2006, so most of the available literature is not updated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cruciferous vegetables</span> Vegetables of the family Brassicaceae

Cruciferous vegetables are vegetables of the family Brassicaceae with many genera, species, and cultivars being raised for food production such as cauliflower, cabbage, kale, garden cress, bok choy, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, mustard plant and similar green leaf vegetables. The family takes its alternative name from the shape of their flowers, whose four petals resemble a cross.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bovine papillomavirus</span> Group of viruses

Bovine papillomaviruses (BPV) are a paraphyletic group of DNA viruses of the subfamily Firstpapillomavirinae of Papillomaviridae that are common in cattle. All BPVs have a circular double-stranded DNA genome. Infection causes warts of the skin and alimentary tract, and more rarely cancers of the alimentary tract and urinary bladder. They are also thought to cause the skin tumour equine sarcoid in horses and donkeys.

<i>Osmundastrum</i> Species of fern

Osmundastrum is genus of leptosporangiate ferns in the family Osmundaceae with one living species, Osmundastrum cinnamomeum, the cinnamon fern. It is native to the Americas and eastern Asia, growing in swamps, bogs and moist woodlands.

<i>Phlebodium aureum</i> Species of fern

Phlebodium aureum is an epiphytic fern native to tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ptaquiloside</span> Chemical compound

Ptaquiloside is a norsesquiterpene glucoside produced by bracken ferns during metabolism. It is identified to be the main carcinogen of the ferns and to be responsible for their biological effects, such as haemorrhagic disease and bright blindness in livestock and oesophageal, gastric cancer in humans. Ptaquiloside has an unstable chemical structure and acts as a DNA alkylating agent under physiological conditions. It was first isolated and characterized by Yamada and co-workers in 1983.

<i>Pteridium esculentum</i> Species of plant

Pteridium esculentum, commonly known as bracken fern, Austral bracken or simply bracken, is a species of the bracken genus native to a number of countries in the Southern Hemisphere. Esculentum means edible. First described as Pteris esculenta by German botanist Georg Forster in 1786, it gained its current binomial name in 1908. The Eora people of the Sydney region knew it as gurgi.

<i>Calochlaena dubia</i> Species of fern

Calochlaena dubia, commonly known as soft bracken, false bracken, common ground fern or rainbow fern, is a small Australian fern in the treefern family Dicksoniaceae. It is very common within its range, and often seen growing under eucalyptus forest, often on the poorer quality soils. It is an easy plant to grow in the garden.

<i>Myriopteris rawsonii</i> Species of fern

Myriopteris rawsonii, formerly known as Cheilanthes rawsonii, is a perennial fern native to Namaqualand in Southern Africa. Like many other cheilanthoid ferns, it is adapted to dry conditions, bearing a thick layer of pale hairs on the underside of its pinnate-pinnatifid leaves. It is the only African representative of its clade of cheilanthoids, the otherwise American genus Myriopteris. It spends much of the year in a dried-out, dormant state, rehydrating and putting out new growth during winter rains. Its name honors the botanist and civil servant Sir Rawson W. Rawson.

References

  1. ↑ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0 Pteridium aquilinum Bracken Fern". explorer.natureserve.org. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
  2. ↑ Christenhusz, M., Bento Elias, R., Dyer, R., Ivanenko, Y., Rouhan, G., Rumsey, F. & Väre, H. 2017. Pteridium aquilinum. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017: e.T73691742A85427115. Downloaded on 01 July 2021.
  3. ↑ Clapham, A.R., Tutin, T.G. and Warburg, E.F. 1968 Excursion Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   0-521-04656-4.
  4. ↑ "SCDNR - Species: Bracken Fern". www.dnr.sc.gov. Retrieved 2022-06-04.
  5. 1 2 Parnell, J. and Curtis, T. 2012. Webb's An Irish Flora. Cork University Press. ISBN   978-1-85918-478-3.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Common Weeds of the United States. New York: Dover. January 1971. p.  8. ISBN   0486205045.
  7. ↑ Thomson, John A. (2004). "Towards a taxonomic revision of Pteridium (Dennstaedtiaceae)". Telopea. 10 (4): 793–803.
  8. ↑ Wolf, Paul G.; Rowe, Carol A.; Kinosian, Sylvia P.; Der, Joshua P.; Lockhart, Peter J.; Shepherd, Lara D.; McLenachan, Patricia A.; Thomson, John A. (October 2019). "Worldwide relationships in the fern genus Pteridium (bracken) based on nuclear genome markers". American Journal of Botany. 106 (10): 1365–1376. doi:10.1002/ajb2.1365. ISSN   0002-9122. PMC   6856829 . PMID   31545874.
  9. ↑ radix oblique dissecta refert aliquatenus aquilam imperialem
  10. ↑ Austin, Daniel F. (2004). Florida ethnobotany. CRC Press. p. 551. ISBN   978-0-8493-2332-4 . Retrieved 30 June 2010.
  11. 1 2 Baker, Herbert G (1974). "The Evolution of Weeds". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics . Annual Reviews. 5 (1): 1–24. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.000245. ISSN   0066-4162.
  12. ↑ Whitehead, S J; Digby, J (1997). "The morphology of bracken (Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn) in the North York Moors—a comparison of the mature stand and the interface with heather (Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull) 1. The fronds". Annals of Applied Biology. 131: 103–116. doi:10.1111/j.1744-7348.1997.tb05399.x.
  13. ↑ Gomes, Joana; Magalhães, Ana; Michel, Valérie; Amado, Inês F; Aranha, Paulo; Ovesen, Rikke G; Hansen, Hans C. B; Gärtner, Fátima; Reis, Celso A; Touati, Eliette (2012). "Pteridium aquilinum and Its Ptaquiloside Toxin Induce DNA Damage Response in Gastric Epithelial Cells, a Link with Gastric Carcinogenesis". Toxicological Sciences. 126 (1): 60–71. doi: 10.1093/toxsci/kfr329 . PMID   22143989.
  14. 1 2 Vetter, János (2009-03-03). "A biological hazard of our age: Bracken fern [ Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn] — A Review". Acta Veterinaria Hungarica. 57 (1): 183–196. doi:10.1556/avet.57.2009.1.18. ISSN   1588-2705. PMID   19457786.
  15. ↑ Hirono, Iwao; Ito, Mitsuya; Yagyu, Shigeru; Haga, Masanobu; Wakamatsu, Kazumasa; Kishikawa, Teruaki; Nishikawa, Osamu; Yamada, Kiyoyuki; Ojika, Makoto; Kigoshi, Hideo (1993). "Reproduction of Progressive Retinal Degeneration (Bright Blindness) in Sheep by Administration of Ptaquiloside Contained in Bracken". Journal of Veterinary Medical Science. 55 (6): 979–983. doi: 10.1292/jvms.55.979 . PMID   8117827.
  16. ↑ Masuda, E.K.; Kommers, G.D.; Martins, T.B.; Barros, C.S.L.; Piazer, J.V.M. (2011). "Morphological Factors as Indicators of Malignancy of Squamous Cell Carcinomas in Cattle Exposed Naturally to Bracken Fern (Pteridium aquilinum)". Journal of Comparative Pathology. 144 (1): 48–54. doi:10.1016/j.jcpa.2010.04.009. PMID   20542519.
  17. ↑ I A Evans; B Widdop; R S Jones; G D Barber; H Leach; D L Jones & R Mainwaring-Burton (1971). "The possible human hazard of the naturally occurring bracken carcinogen". Biochem. J. 124 (2): 29P–30P. doi:10.1042/bj1240029pa. PMC   1177200 . PMID   5158492.
  18. ↑ Alonso‐Amelot, Miguel E; Avendaño, Marisabel (2001). "Possible association between gastric cancer and bracken fern in Venezuela: An epidemiologic study". International Journal of Cancer. 91 (2): 252–259. doi: 10.1002/1097-0215(200002)9999:9999<::AID-IJC1028>3.0.CO;2-H . PMID   11146454.
  19. ↑ Tourchi-Roudsari, Motahhareh (2014). "Multiple effects of bracken fern under in vivo and in vitro conditions". Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention. 15 (18): 7505–7513. doi: 10.7314/apjcp.2014.15.18.7505 . ISSN   2476-762X. PMID   25292020.
  20. 1 2 3 4 5 Shaw, Hank (30 June 2011). "The Bracken Fern: A Natural Born Killer?". The Atlantic . Retrieved 19 April 2017.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 Pieroni, Andrea (2005). Prance, Ghillean; Nesbitt, Mark (eds.). The Cultural History of Plants. Routledge. p. 35. ISBN   0415927463.
  22. ↑ Latorre, A.O; Caniceiro, B.D; Wysocki, H.L; Haraguchi, M; Gardner, D.R; Górniak, S.L (2011). "Selenium reverses Pteridium aquilinum-induced immunotoxic effects". Food and Chemical Toxicology. 49 (2): 464–470. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2010.11.026 . PMID   21112370.
  23. ↑ Marrs, R. H.; Watt, A. S. (November 2006). "Biological Flora of the British Isles: Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn". Journal of Ecology. 94 (6): 1272–1321. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2006.01177.x. ISSN   0022-0477. S2CID   85114338.
  24. ↑ "Bracken / RHS Gardening". www.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved 2022-06-04.
  25. ↑ Mishan, Ligaya (16 February 2017). "At Cafe Lily, the Korean-Uzbek Menu Evokes a Past Exodus". The New York Times . Retrieved 19 April 2017.
  26. ↑ Fontella, Amelia Cook (16 February 2017). "I brake for fernbrake". Isthmus . Retrieved 19 April 2017.
  27. ↑ Hall, Alan (1973). The Wild Food Trailguide. Canada: Holt, Rinehart, Winston. p. 33. ISBN   0-03-007701-X.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  28. ↑ Dion, C; Haug, C; Guan, H; Ripoll, C; Spiteller, P; Coussaert, A; Boulet, E; Schmidt, D; Wei, J; Zhou, Y; Lamottke, K (2015). "Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory and antioxidative potential of four fern species from China intended for use as food supplements". Natural Product Communications. 10 (4): 597–603. doi: 10.1177/1934578X1501000416 . PMID   25973486. S2CID   8419285.
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